
Book.__L 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A Modern 
English Grammar 



WITH COMPOSITION 



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ABRIDGED 



BY 

HUBER GRAY BUEHLER 

HEAD MASTER OF THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL; AUTHOR OF " PRACTICAI 
EXERCISES IN ENGLISH" 



KEWSON & COMPANY 

27 and 29 West Twenty-third Street, New York 



\V 



jUBHARY of 0ON«3«ESS! 
Two Oople* Kewirjd 

MAR 23 I JOG 

_ Jouyngni tnw* 
Ja V\ \ \ . I <\ C * 
1 0U8t» OL AXCi No, 



Copyright, 1900, by Huber Gray Buehler 

All rights reserved 



Copyright, 1906, by Newson & Company 
Copyright, 1908, by Newson & Company 

All rights reserved 






CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction i 

PART I 

Sentences and their Structure 
chapter 

I. Of Sentences in General 15 

II. Of Subject and Predicate 19 

III. Of Simple Subject and Verb 31 

IV. Of Complements 3 8 

V. Of Modifiers 47 

VI. Of Phrases and Clauses 57 

VII. Of Sentences Simple, Complex, and Compound 74 

VIII. Of Elliptical Sentences 79 



PART II 

The Parts of Speech 

I. Of the Recognition of the Parts of Speech 85 

II. Of Nouns 102 

III. Of Pronouns 122 

IV. Of Adjectives ." 152 

V. Of Articles 157 

VI. Of Verbs 161 

VII. Of Adverbs 211 

VIII. Of Prepositions ■ 217 

IX. Of Conjunctions 223 

X. Of Interjections 225 

Appendix 227 



vi CONTENTS 

PART III 

Lessons in Composition 

PAGE 

Introduction 237 

CHAPTER 

I. The Composition as a Whole 245 

1. The Topic Sentence 249 

2. The Title 250 

3. Analyzing a Selection 252 

4. Making an Abstract 253 

5. The Topic: Expressed or Understood 254 

6. Making a Topical Outline 256 

II. Narration. 

1. Outlining a Story 259 

2. Making a Story Interesting: Suspense and Climax 260 

3. The Tense of the Verb in Story Telling 262 

4. The Story Told by the Characters 263 

III. Description. 

1. A Picture Study 266 

2. Word Pictures 267 

3. Unity in the Composition 270 

IV. The Paragraph. 

1. Unity in the Paragraph 273 

2. The Topic of the Paragraph 274 

3. The Topic of the Paragraph: Expressed or Un- 

derstood 276 

4. Connecting Sentences and Paragraphs 277 

V. The Sentence. 

1. Unity in the Sentence 279 

2. Connecting the Parts of the Sentence 282 

3. Subordination in the Sentence 283 

4. Likeness of Form in the Sentence 284 

5. Variety in the Sentence 286 



CONTENTS vii 
CHAPTER PAGE 

VI. The Word. 

i. Selecting Details to Secure Interest 288 

2. Suiting Method to Purpose 290 

3. Building up a Vocabulary 291 

4. Accuracy in Expression 293 

5. What is Good English ? Present Use 295 

6. Idioms and Slang 297 

7. Provincialisms 298 



INTRODUCTION 



1. Language. — Everybody has an instinctive 
desire to tell his thoughts and feelings to others ; 
indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social 
life. One way of expressing thoughts is to make 
motions with the hands or other parts of the body, 
as children and deaf and dumb persons do. But the 
usual and very much better way is to make with the 
tongue and adjoining organs certain combinations 
of sounds which by common consent have certain 
meanings. These combinations of tongue-sounds, 
by which people express their thoughts and feelings, 
form Language (from Latin lingua, "tongue"). 
Combinations of sounds that stand for single ideas 
are called Words. These are in turn combined into 
thought-groups called Sentences. 

2. Why Our Language is Called English. — Our 

language is called English because it is the language 
that has been spoken for more than fifteen hundred 
years in England, whence it has been carried to 
America and other parts of the world by English 
Qolonists. 

I 



2 INTRODUCTION 

3. The Early Home of English. — But the English 
language did not have its beginning in England. It 
was carried there in 449 A. D. by people who migrated 
from the banks of the river Elbe and the southwest 
coasts of the Baltic Sea. These people were from 
three tribes, called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Of the 
Jutes who moved to England nearly all trace has been 




MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH. 



lost. The Angles and the Saxons drove the original 
inhabitants — the Britons — -into the mountainous 
parts of the island, and in course of time founded 
the Anglo-Saxon race. They called their new coun- 
try "Angleland," or "England;" themselves and 
their language they called " English." 

The wonderful way in which the English lan- 
guage has spread over the world is shown by the 
accompanying maps, The map on this page showg 



INTRODUCTION 



the early home of English, when it was a mere 
dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The 
shaded portions of- the map below show the regions 
of the world in which English is now used. 



160 120 S&d? 40 I ijl V}, 

Arctic Ocean vch^lnttz «%;ReENUN[)i 




NEV*?IE»LANB 



1G0 "V2lT 



Boroi»j 4 Co., N. Y. 

MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



How far English has outstripped other languages 
may be seen from the following table, which shows 
the number of people speaking the principal Euro- 
pean languages in 1890: — 

English 111,100,000 

German 75,200,000 

Russian 75,000,000 

French 51,200,000 

Spanish 42,800,000 

Italian 33,400,000 

Portuguese 13,000,000 



4. Old English Different from Modern English. 

— The language carried to England by the Anglo. 



4 INTRODUCTION 

Saxons was so unlike the English of to-day that at 
first glance it seems to be quite a different tongue. 
Here, for example, is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo- 
Saxon, or Old English, with the Corresponding 
modern English words printed underneath : — 

Fseder ure, J)tt J>e eart on heofenum 
Father our, thou that art in heavens 

SI }nn nama gehalgod 
Be thy name hallowed 

To becume thin rice 
Arrive thy kingdom 

Geweor)?e \\x\ willa on eor)jan, swa swa on heofenum 
Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heavens 

Urne dasghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg 
Our daily loaf give us to-day 

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgifajj urum gyltendum 
And forgive us our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors 

And ne gelaede }ju us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle 
And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil 

S6J)lice. 
Soothly (Amen). 

5. nelation of Old English to Modern English. 

— Strange-looking as this Old English is, it is the 
same language as that which we use. The differ- 
ence between it and modern English is no more to 
be wondered at than the difference between a young 
child and the same child when grown to manhood. 
Some knowledge of how our language has grown, 
and changed is helpful to the study of it as it is 
to-day, 



INTRODUCTION 5 

6c How Our Language has Grown. — When our 
language was carried to England, it consisted of 
probably not more than two thousand words ; now 
it contains more than two hundred thousand — a 
much larger number than any other language. 
These new words have come into the language in 
many interesting ways : — 

(1) British Words. — When the Anglo-Saxons set- 
tled in England and drove off the Britons, they 
adopted some British words, just as the Americans 
have adopted some Indian words. Of these words, 
adopted from the Britons, examples are: "cradle" 
and "crock." 




ROMAN WALL IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND. 

Built by the Romans as a defense against native tribes. 

(2) Latin Words Found in Britain. — For several 
hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo- 
Saxons, England had been in the possession of the 
Romans. When the Romans withdrew from the 
island in 410 A. D., they left behind a few Latin 



INTRODUCTION 



words, which were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons. 
Examples are: " street " (Latin strata via, "paved 
way"), "mile" (Latin viilia passuum, "a thousand 
paces"), and "wall" (Latin vallum). 



ANCIENT DANISH BOAT FOR FOURTEEN PAIRS OF OARS. 
7S feet long, 10 feet broad. Found in a peat bog in Jutland. 

(3) Missionary Words. — About the year 600 A. D. 
Christianity began to be received by the Saxons 
through Roman missionaries; and with the mis- 
sionaries came many new words from the Latin. 
Examples are: "monk" (Latin monachus) and 
" clerk " (Latin clcricus). 

(4) Danish Words. — Toward the end of the eighth 
century Norsemen or Danes overran parts of Eng- 
land, and many of their words were adopted by the 
English. Examples are : " sky " and " ugly." 

(5) Norman-French Words. — In 1066 William of 
Normandy conquered England in the great move- 
ment known as the Norman Invasion. The Nor- 
mans, who came from France, spoke Norman- 
French, which was for the most part modified Latin. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

In England they seized the land and all the political 
power, filled all the offices,' and made their language 
the language of the court, the law, the schools, and 
the church. We cannot dwell on the particulars of 
the tremendous change in our language which was 
wrought by this Norman Invasion. It is enough to 
say that after three hundred years of contact with 
Norman-French the English language was very 
much richer in vocabulary and softer in sound. Of 
the many hundreds of Norman-French words in 
our language examples are: "battle," "forest," 
" duke," and " family." 

(6) Words from Latin Books. — In the sixteenth cen- 
tury, through the influence of what is called the 
Revival of Learning, the study of Latin became 
very popular in England. No one was considered 
well educated unless he could read Latin ; nearly 
all important books were written in Latin; and 
Latin words began to appear in English conversation 
and writing. Since these Latin-English words were 
learned from books, they closely resembled in spell- 
ing the original Latin words. Examples are : "ex- 
ample " (Latin exemplum), "fact" (Latin factum), 
and "quiet" (Latin quietus). 

(7) Imported Words. — The descendants of the 
Anglo-Saxons have always been great travelers and 
traders; and in their traveling and trading they 
have collected words from all parts of the world. 
Examples are: from Spain, "mosquito;" from 
Italy, "piano;" from Holland, "skate;" from 
Germany, "zinc;" from Africa, "gorilla;" from 



8 INTRODUCTION 

the American Indian, "hammock" and "tomato;" 
from Arabia, "sofa;" from China, "silk;" from 
India, "sugar;" from Persia, "awning;" from 
Turkey, " tulip." 

(8) Nczv Words for New Things. — New discoveries 
and inventions, as they have occurred, have given 
new words to our language. Examples are : ' ' pho- 
tograph " and "telephone." 

7. Proportion of Foreign Words in Modern 
English. — The proportion of words in modern Eng- 
lish which have been drawn from the sources just 
described maybe roughly represented as follows: — 



OKI English Words 



Latin Words 
(including Norman-French) 



Greek Words 



Kalian, Spanish, Dutcn, Hebrew, Arabic, 
Persian, American Indian, etc. 



8. Changes in Our Language. — Our language has 
not only grown ; it has changed. 

(i) In Inflections. — Old English was what is called 
a highly inflected language. An inflected language 
is one that joins words together in sentences by 
means of "inflections" or changes in the words 
themselves. For example, in Old English oxan 
meant "oxen," oxena meant "of oxen," oxum meant 
"with oxen." Accordingly, instead of saying as 
we do " tongues of oxen," our Anglo-Saxon ances- 



INTRODUCTION 9 

tors said " tungan oxen^z." Traces of these word- 
changes or inflections still remain in our language : 
as, " sing," " sing.?." 

(2) /;/ Order of Words. — The order of words in Old 
English was clumsy and involved. For example, 
instead of saying as we do, — 

When Darius saw that he would be overcome, 
our Anglo-Saxon ancestors would have said, — 
When Darius saw that he overcome be would. 

(3) In Sound. — Old English was a guttural speech, 
full of harsh, choking sounds. For example, our 
"holy" was once "halig," our "bridge" was once 
s ' brigg" (as in Scotland to this day), our ' ' day " was 
once "daeg," our "light" was once pronounced 
like the Scotch "licht." 

9. How Changes Came About. — The greatest 
changes in our language occurred between 1 100 and 
1500 A. D., that is to say, during the four centuries 
that followed the Norman Conquest. The story of the 
changes is too long to be told here ; but some idea 
of how they came about may be gained by noticing 
what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only 
half learned English tries to speak it. He mispro- 
nounces the words, arranges them after the manner 
of his own language, neglects the inflections. In 
somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons 
and the Norman-French became one people, and 
their languages were fused into modern English, 
sounds were modified, the order was changed, and 
inflections were dropped. 



,o INTRODUCTION 

lO. Language Still Subject to Change. — Since 
the invention of printing, changes in English have 
not been numerous ; for the vast number of printed 




EARLY PRINTING PRESS. 



books and papers, and the immense spread of the 
ability to read and write, have given to our lan- 
guage a rigidity of form which it could not have 
so long as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For 
example, the language of the English Bible, which 
is sixteenth-century English, differs little from the 
English of to-day. But some change is still going 
on, for modifying influences are still at work. Eng- 
lish-speaking people in different parts of the world 
do not talk exactly alike ; new words are coming in ; 
old words are dropping out ; the forms and uses of 
other words are changing. An example of this 
modern change is found in the word " whom." The 



INTRODUCTION n 

"m" in this word is an inflection, once useful in 
conveying meaning ; and we still say, when we wish 
to speak very accurately, "Whom did you see?" 
But since the "m" is no longer necessary to the 
meaning, people have become very careless about 
using it, and even good speakers often say, " Who 
did you see? " 

11. Good English. — Good English is the English 
used by the best speakers and writers ; and the use 
of such English is " only a phase of good manners." 
Bad English, that is, English unlike that which is 
used by well-informed and careful writers, produces 
in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression 
of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which we 
get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It is 
with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons 
who wish to be classed as cultivated people must 
not only dress and act like cultivated people ; they 
must also speak and write like them. A help toward 
this end is the study of grammar. 

12. Grammar. — Grammar is an account of the 
relations which words bear to one another when 
they are put together in sentences. An understand- 
ing of these relations requires some knowledge of 
the nature, the forms, and the history of words, but 
only so far as these bear on the uses of words in 
sentences. The proper starting point of English 
grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words 
considered by themselves belongs to the dictionary. 



12 INTRODUCTION 

13. T'ses of Grammar. — It is not by grammar, 
however, that we learn to speak or write. Speak- 
ing and writing our mother tongue are habits, 
formed by imitation long before we acquire that 
knowledge which is the subject-matter of grammar. 
The object of the study of grammar is to learn the 
uses of words in sentences, so that we may test the 
habits of speech which we have already acquired, 
and make them conform to the best models. Inci- 
dentally the study of grammar affords invaluable 
mental training. 

14. Grammars Old and New. — Among English- 
speaking peoples grammar was first studied as a 
step toward the learning of Latin, and the first 
English grammar was called an "Introduction to 
Lily's Latin Grammar." The author of that first 
English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather 
than on English, and making his work conform to 
Latin models, treated English as if it were in all 
important respects like Latin and Greek, with no 
history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact, 
English differs greatly from other languages. In 
structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the 
mistake of the first English grammar was followed 
by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years. 
Now we have learned better, and study our language 
with reference to its own nature and history. 



PART I 

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



CHAPTER I 

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 

15. Ideas. — The word " dog," when heard or seen, 
instantly creates in the mind a mental picture of a 
well-known animal. This mental picture is called 
an idea. The idea may be made more definite by 
the addition of other words: as, "The big bulldog 
in Mr. Smith's yard." 

16. Thoughts and Sentences. — The words " The 
big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard " are satisfactory as 
an expression of a mental picture or idea ; but as a 
remark made by someone they are incomplete, for 
we at once find ourselves asking, " Well, what about 
that dog?" We are satisfied when we hear that 
" The big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard barked" 
From this group of words we get, first, the idea of 
a certain dog, and, secondly, we get an idea of what 
the dog did. Two ideas of this kind — some- 
thing thought of and an assertion about it — together 
form a complete thought. 

Definition. — A group of related words expressing 
a complete thought is called a Sentence. 

17. Caution. — " The big bulldog barking in the 
yard " is not a sentence, for it contains no assertion. 
" Barking " does not assert, The words as they 



16 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

stand will become a sentence if we add an asser- 
tion : as, " The big bulldog barking in the yard 
frightened me ; " or if we connect " dog " and 
" barking " by an asserting word like " is : " as, 
"The big bulldog is barking in the yard." 

EXERCISE 1. 

i . Tell which of the following groups of words are 
sentences. Make sentences out of the other groups. by 
adding appropriate asserting words : — 

i. The man in the moon. 

2. The man in the moon came down too soon. 

3. The boy in blue. 

4. The boy is reciting his lesson. 

5. The boy in blue reciting his lesson. 

6. The boy reciting his lesson is my brother. 

7. His attempt to catch the ball. 

8. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

9. The children playing in the street. 

10. The apples hanging on the tree. 

11. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

12. Charles, seeing a crowd in the street. 

1. Construct five sentences about things in the school- 
room, and show that they are sentences. 

18. Sentences Classified. — Examine the sentences 
in the following conversation : — 

Donald : I found these big apples in grandfather's barn, 
Dorothy: Show us where you got them. 



.NTENCES IN GENERAL 17 

Jack : Are there any more left ? 
Helen : Aren't they beauties ! 

You observe that, in the first sentence, Donald's 
thought is an assertion ; in the second, Dorothy's 
thought is a request or a command; in the third, 
Jack's thought is a question ; in the fourth, Helen's 
thought seems at first glance to be a question about 
the beauty of the apples ; but a little reflection shows 
that she is merely expressing her delight by an ex- 
clamation y which has the interrogative form. 

Definitions. — Sentences that assert or declare are 
called Declarative Sentences. 

Sentences that ask are called Interrogative Sentences. 

Sentences that command are called Imperative 
Sentences. 

When declarative, interrogative, and imperative 
sentences are used as exclamations expressing strong 
feeling, they are called Exclamatory Sentences. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Tell the kind of each sentence in the following selec- 
tions : — 

1. We all do fade as a leaf. 

2. Fear God. Honor the king. 

3. The king is dead ! Long live the king ! 

4. A living dog is better than a dead lion. 

5. Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not be 
burned ? 



18 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRW,URE 

19. Punctuation. — Every sentence should begin 
with a capital letter. 

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence 
is marked by a period (,). 

The end of an interrogative sentence is marked by 
an interrogation point (?). 

When the sentences are exclamatory,, these 
marks are changed to exclamation points (!). 

EXERCISE 3. 

I. Write two declarative sentences about noted 
men. i. Write two interrogative sentences. 3. Write 
two imperative sentences. 4. Write an exclamatory 
sentence. 5. Change your declarative sentences into 
questions. 6. Change one of your interrogative sen- 
tences into a command. 



CHAPTER II 

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

20. Subject and Predicate Denned. — Examine the 
following sentences : — 

Naming Part. Asserting Part. 



Fire burns. 

I cut myself. 

The school bell has just rung. 

The big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard barked at me. 

You observe that each sentence has two parts — 
the naming part and an asserting part — and that 
both parts are necessary. 

Definition. — The part of a sentence which denotes 
that about which an assertion is made is called the 
Subject. 

Definition — The asserting part of a sentence is 
called the Predicate (Latin, "thing said"). 

In an interrogative sentence the predicate asks something about 
the subject. 

In an imperative sentence the predicate commands, and the 
subject is generally omitted, because the subject of a command is 
always the person or persons spoken to, and to name it is unneces- 
sary: as, "Listen [ye];" "Don't [you] forget." 



2 o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write sentences expressing a thought or feeling sug- 
gested by each of the following subjects : — 

i. Flowers- . 4. Chalk . 7. I . 

2. Lions . 5. Farmers . 8. He . 

3. Indians . 6. Chickens . 9. Who ? 

EXERCISE 5. 

With ivhat subjects would the follozving predicates be 
appropriate ? 



I. 

2. 


sing. 

climb. 


5. grow. 

6. will be here soon. 


3- 

4- 


spin. 

trot. 


7. Is coming? 

8. Can ride a bicycle? 



21. Position of the Subject. — The subject does not 
always come first. Thus : — 

Predicate. Subject. 



Up went the balloon. 
Then burst his mighty heart. 
In the shade of the great elm trees stands a weather-beaten house. 

Sometimes the subject is put between parts of the 
predicate like a wedge. In the following sentences, 
for example, the subjects are printed in italics : — 

Is Fred coming? 

Where do pineapples grow? 

How fast the snow falls! 

Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

At the appointed time the gladiators marched into the arena. 

Has every pupil in the class brought his book ? 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 21 

When the subject comes first, the sentence is said to be in the 
natural order. When the subject does not come first, the sentence 
is in inverted order. 

When in doubt about the subject of a sentence, look first for the 
predicate or asserting part. The subject is always the answer 
to the question formed by putting who or what before the predicate. 
For example, in the sentence, "Up flew the windows all," in which 
the asserting part, or predicate, is "up flew," the subject is the 
answer to the question, "Who or what up flew?" 

To the Teacher.— At this stage of the work no attention should 
be paid to the simple subject and the simple predicate, — a more 
difficult step in analysis which should be deferred till the next chap- 
ter. In the exercises in this chapter attention should be fixed ex- 
clusively on the complete subject and the complete predicate. 

EXERCISE 6. 

Tell the subject and the predicate of each of tJie follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. Down went the Royal George. 

Model for Oral Exercise. — The subject is "the Royal 
George;" the predicate is "down went." (Either subject or predi- 
cate may be named first.) 

Model for Written Exercise. — Copy the sentence and under- 
line the subject. Thus: Down went the Royal George. 

2. Our revels now are ended. 

3. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. 

4. The way of transgressors is hard. 

5. The aged minstrel audience gained. 

6. The memory of the just is blessed. 

7. Doubtful seemed the battle. 

8. Wise are all His ways. 

9. That gale I well remember. 

10. Where did you find your book ? 

11. Are your friends coming? 



22 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

12. Great is your reward in Heaven. 

13. Of noble race the lady came. 

14. At the door, on summer evenings, 
Sat the little Hiawatha. 

15. Her wing shall the eagle flap 
O'er the false-hearted. 

16. To seek thee did I often rove 
Through woods and on the green. 

17. The pavement damp and cold 
No smiling courtiers tread. 

18. Under the walls of Monterey 

At daybreak the bugles began to play. 

19. Meanwhile, from street and lane, a noisy crowd 
Had rolled together, like a summer cloud. 

20. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre" 
Lay in the fruitful valley. 

EXERCISE 7. 

Construct two sentences in which the subjects come first ; 
two in which the subjects come last ; two in which the 
subjects come between parts of the predicate. 

22. Compound Subjects. — Very often the same pred- 
icate is used with two or more connected subjects: 
as, 

Connected Subjects. Predicate. 



Flowers and ferns grow beside the brook. 
The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel. 

Definition. — Two or more connected subjects hav- 
ing the same predicate form a Compound Subject. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 23 

23. Compound Predicates. — Very often the same 
subject has several connected predicates : as, 
Subject. Connected Predicates. 



States rise and fall. 
Charity stiff ereth long and is kind. 

Definition. — Two or more connected predicates 
having the same subject form a Compound Predicate. 

24. Compound Subject and Predicate. — Sometimes 
both subject and predicate are compound : as, 
Compound Subject. Compound Predicate. 



Spring and summer came and went. 

EXERCISE 8. 

In the following sentences separate the subjects from 
the predicates. If a subject or a predicate is compound, 
separate it into its parts : — 

1. She and her brother were there. 

Model for Oral Exercise. — The predicate is "were there;" 
the subject is "She and her brother," a compound subject consist- 
ing of "She" and "her brother," connected by "and." 

Model for Written Exercise. — 

S. P. 

She ) 

and [■ were there, 

her brother ) 

2. Copper and tin are found in England. 

3. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, rush by in quick 
succession. 

4. Scepter and crown 
Must tumble down. 



24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

5. Jack and Jill went up the hill 
To fetch a pail of water. 

6. The lion and the unicorn 
Were fighting for the crown. 

7. The stranger came with iron hand 
And from our fathers reft the land. 

8. Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep 

And dreamt she heard them bleating. 

9. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables 
and were fed at the same time. 

10. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunks of cocoa- 
nut palms and thatch the roofs with the leaves. 

n. Dragoons were armed with muskets, and were also provided 
with bayonets, fitted into the muzzles of the guns. 

12. The fine horses of the Life Guards, their rich housings, their 
cuirasses, and their buff coats adorned with ribbons, velvet, and gold 
lace, made a splendid appearance in St. James's Park. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Construct two sentences with compound subjects ; 
two with compound predicates ; two in which both 
subject and predicate are compound. 

To the Teacher. — Power to distinguish the subject from the 
predicate is the foundation of grammatical analysis; and until the 
pupil has acquired this power, nothing else should be attempted. 
The end to be kept in view in the following exercise is the develop- 
ment of power to separate instantly the complete subject from the 
complete predicate. (See note to teacher, p. 21.) 

EXERCISE 10. 

(Review.) 

In the following sentences separate the subject from 
the predicate : — 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 25 

I. 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

2. Which way does the wind come? 

3. Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? 

4. Ten spears he swept within his grasp. 

5. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield. 

6. A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance. 

7. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 

8. The sentinel on Whitehall gate looked forth into the night. 

9. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 
miles. 

10. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the 
fifteenth century. 

11. Nansen got within two hundred and twenty -seven miles of 
the North Pole. 

12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected 
by the Saracens at Seville, in Spain. 

II. 

1. Here stands the man. 

2. Wide open stood the doors. 

3. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

4. Adown the glen rode armed men. 

5. Great and marvelous are Thy works. 

6. In those days came John the Baptist. 

7. In my Father's house are many mansions. 

8. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

9. A little boy with crumbs of bread 
Many a hungry sparrow fed. 

10. From floor to ceiling 

Like a huge organ rise the burnished arms. 



26 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

ii. On the British heart were lost 

The terrors of the charging host. 
12. Far down the beautiful river, 

Past the Ohio shore and past the mouth of the Wabash, 

Into the golden stream of the broad and swift Mississippi 

Floated a cumbrous boat. 



III. 



i. Come with me. 

2. Give me your attention. 

3. Overhead I heard a murmur. 

4. Whom did the old man ask for? 

5. The cat, prowling round the yard, caught a young robin. 

6. On the first day of the battle of Gettysburg the Confederates 
captured several thousand prisoners. 

7. Down the street with laughter and shout come the boys. 

8. Forth the great campaigner came 
Slowly from his canvas palace. 

9. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 

10. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of 
Minas 
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pre, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres. 

To the Teacher. — The above carefully selected and graded exer- 
cises may be supplemented at will by requiring pupils to sepa- 
rate the subject from the predicate in sentences found in school 
readers, histories, etc. Such material is always at hand; and drill 
in the distinction between subject and predicate should not cease 
until the pupils are thoroughly familiar with it. The distinction 
is all-important, and should be dwelt on for weeks, if necessary. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 27 

25. Impersonal Subject. 1 — Examine the following 
sentences : — 

It is snowing. 

It is growing dark. 

If we try to find the subjects of these sentences 
by asking " What is snowing ? " " What is growing 
dark ? " the only answer is " It." But " it " does 
not here denote any person or thing. Therefore 
it is called an Impersonal Subject. 

EXERCISE 11. 

Write three sentences of your own containing im- 
personal subjects. 

26. " It " Expletive. — Compare the following sen- 
tences : — 

(a) To find fault is easy. 

(b) It is easy to find fault. 

In meaning these sentences are exactly alike; but, 
they differ in form. The first sentence begins with 
the subject, " to find fault," which is followed by 
the predicate, " is easy ; " the second sentence be- 
gins with " it," followed immediately by the predi- 
cate, which in turn is followed by the subject. In 
such sentences the introductory word " it " has no 

1 To the Teacher. — Such sentences as " It is snowing," " It is wrong 
to lie," " There is a clock on the wall," are very frequent and perfectly 
familiar to children, whose attention should be drawn early to the pe- 
culiar treatment of subject and predicate which such sentences show. 
The peculiarity is easily learned by children, and the discussion of it 
properly belongs under "Subject and Predicate," not under "Parts of 
Speech " or " Apposition." 



2 8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

meaning, and is therefore commonly called an Ex- 
pletive (Latin, " filling up "). 

EXERCISE 12. 

Tell the subject and the predicate of each of the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

i. It is good to be here. 
Model for Oral Exercise. — The subject is "to be here;" the 
predicate is "is good." "It" is an expletive. 

Model for Written Exercise. — 

S P E 

to be here is good It 

2. It does not pay to worry. 

3. It is not all of life to live. 

4. It will not suit us to go with you. 

5. It is doubtful whether he can come. 

6. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

7. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 

8. It is certain that the sun spins like a top. 

9. It is not. good to wake a sleeping hound. 

10. It was said to them of old time, Thou shalt not kill. 

11. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 

12. It is hard to believe that the finest railway station in the 
world is in India. 

13. It has been proved by actual measurement that the thread 
forming the cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles long. 

EXERCISE 13. 

Construct five sentences that begin with " it " ex- 
pletive, and tell the subject and the predicate of each. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 29 

27. " There " Expletive. — Compare the following 
sentences : — 

(a) A gust of wind came. 

(b) There came a gust of wind. 

You observe that these sentences, too, are alike 
in meaning, but differ in form. 

The subject and the predicate are the same in 
each, but the order is different, and the second sen- 
tence begins with " there." 

The word " there," having no meaning by itself, 
is an Expletive. 

The expletive "there" is regularly used before "is," "are," 
"was," "were," etc., when they denote existence: as, "There is 
a God;" "There were giants in those days." 

EXERCISE 14. 

Tell the stibject and the predicate of each of the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. There was a jolly miller. 

Model for Oral Exercise. — The subject is "a jolly miller;" 
the predicate is "was." "There" is an expletive. 

Model for Written Exercise. — 

S. P. E. 

a jolly miller was There 

2. There was silence deep as death. 

3. There is no royal road to learning. 

4. There is a time for all things. 

5. There came a voice from heaven. 

6. There never was a good war. 



30 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

7. There's a divinity that shapes our ends. 

8. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

9. There is a reaper whose name is Death. 

10. There was a sound of revelry by night. 

11. There is no good in arguing with the inevitable. 

12. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 

EXERCISE 15. 

Construct three sentences that begin with " there " ex- 
pletive, a?id tell the subject and the predicate of each. 



CHAPTER III 

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 1 

28. Simple Subject and Verb Defined. — Compare 
the following sentences : — 

Subject Predicate 



Stars twinkle. 
The beautiful stars, which are really twinkle brightly on frosty 
suns, nights. 

You observe that one sentence is composed of 
two words, the other of many ; but the fundamental 
structure of both is the same. Both make assertions 
about stars, and in both cases the assertion is that 
stars twinkle. But in the second sentence the prin- 
cipal words, " stars " and " twinkle," are accom- 
panied by other words. " Stars " is called the Simple 
Subject to distinguish it from the Complete Subject. 
" Twinkle " is called the Verb to distinguish it from 
the Predicate. 

iTo the Teacher. — Only those features of the simple subject and 
verb are treated in this chapter which are needed for an understanding 
of the general structure of sentences. 

At this stage of the work no attention should be paid to "nouns," 
"pronouns," "adjectives," "adverbs," etc., — a more difficult branch of 
analysis, which should be deferred till after the pupil has mastered the 
larger and fundamental conceptions of Subject, Verb, Complement, and 
Modifier. The " parts of speech" will be treated in due time in Part II. 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Other examples are : — 

Complete Subject. Predicate. 



Low black clouds usually gather before a storm. 

Simple Verb. 

Subject. 

The conditions of war vary from age to age with the 
Simple Verb [progress of weapons. 

Subject. 

Definition. — The principal word in the subject of 
a sentence is called the Simple Subject. 

Definition. — A word used to assert something is 
called a Verb. 

EXERCISE 16. 

In the following sentences point out, in the order 
named, the complete subject, the predicate, the simple 
subject, and the verb : — 

i. The ripest fruit falls first. 

Model for Written Exercise. — 

S. P. 

The ripest fruit falls first 

2. She dwelt on a wild moor. 

3. The good news arrived yesterday. 

4. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

5. A hot fire of coals burned in the grate. 

6. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night. 

7. The sudden splash frightened the nurse. 

8. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 

9. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

10. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl. 

11. The master of the district school 
Held at the fire his favorite place. 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 33 

EXERCISE 17. 

Construct four sentences in which the simple subject 
is different from the complete subject : , and the verb from 
the predicate. 

29. The Verb " To Be." — Compare the predicates 
in the following sentences : — 

The lightning flashed. 
Lightning is electricity. 

In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate 
consists of the verb " flashed," which does two 
things : first, it calls up in the mind an idea of sud- 
den brilliance ; secondly, it asserts this brilliance of 
the lightning. In other words, it has both meaning 
and assertive power. 

In the second sentence, the predicate consists of 
two words, " is " and " electricity." 

" Electricity " is a word of definite meaning ; but 
it has no assertive power. 

The assertive part of the predicate is supplied by 
the verb " is." But though " is " has this assertive 
power, it has no meaning of its own, that is, it calls 
up no mental picture. 

Other forms of the verb " to be " are : "I am 
well;" "The windows are open;" " Clay was an 
orator ; " " The nuts were ripe ; " Thou art the 
man." 

The verb " to be " is often called the Copula 
(Latin, "link"). 



34 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

EXERCISE 18. 

Construct five sentences in which different forms of 
the verb " to be" are used with assertive power only. 

30. Verb Phrases. — Examine the following predi- 
cates : — 

Subject. Predicate. 

studies. 

is studying. 

has studied. 

has been studying. 
Dorothy | will study. 

may be studying. 

may have been studying. 

should have been studying. 

Here we have eight different assertions about 
Dorothy. All of the predicates refer to a single ac- 
tion, namely, Dorothy's studying ; but in the first 
instance the assertion is made by one word, in the 
others by several words taken together. From this 
you see that a verb is sometimes made up of two or 
more words. 

Definition. — A group of words together forming 
one verb is called a Verb Phrase. 

31. Verb Phrases in Interrogative, Negative, and Em- 
phatic Sentences. — In interrogative and negative sen- 
tences modern usage requires verb phrases. Com- 
pare, for example, the following sentences : — 

Assertive: She sings. 
Interrogative: Does she sing? 
Negative: She does not sing. 
Emphatic: She does sing. 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 35 

EXERCISE 19. 

Point out the verb phrases in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. I am reading "Ivanhoe." 2. Katherine has finished the 
book. 3. John has cut his finger. 4. Who will help him ? 5. Swal- 
lows were twittering round the eaves of the general's headquarters. 
6. A large eagle was soaring overhead. 7. Father may be in his 
study. 8. To-morrow I shall have finished it. 9. Carrie must 
have been dreaming this morning. 10. You will have paid too 
dear for the whistle, n. By this time he should have learned 
more caution. 12. You might have told me before. 13. Father 
has been writing all morning. 14. The child would play by him- 
self for hours. 15. She would have her own way. 16. He might 
have been doing something useful. 17. This ring may have been 
worn by a Roman dandy. 

EXERCISE 20. 

Change the sentences in Exercise 16 (page 32) into 
negative , interrogative, and emphatic form, and point 
out the verb phrases which you use in the new sen- 
tences. 

32. Caution. — In such sentences as " The sun is 
shining " and " The sun is hot" pupils often find it 
hard to decide whether the italicized word, coming 
after a form of the verb " be," is or is not a part of 
the verb. A good working test is this : If the predi- 
cate of the sentence expresses action, the word in 
question is part of the verb. If the predicate ex- 
presses a condition or quality of the subject, the word 
in question is not a part of the verb. For example, 



36 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

in the following sentences the verbs are printed in 
italics : — 

"The sun is shining" (action). 
"The sun is hot" (condition). 

EXERCISE 21. 

Tell whether the words printed in italics are to be 
vieived as parts of the verbs : — 

i. The key is lost. 2. The key was lost by Bridget. 3. Tenny- 
son is dead. 4. He was buried with solemn ceremony in West- 
minster Abbey. 5. I shall be studying Latin by that time. 6. I 
shall be rested by that time. 7. Charlie has hurt his ankle. 8. The 
ligaments are sprained. 9. They were sprained in the football 
game last Saturday. 10. We have been happy together. 11. Books 
are soiled by use. 12. These books are not soiled. 13. The house 
is deserted. 14. It was deserted by the owners two years after it 
was built. 15. The prisoners are guilty. 16. The sun is bright. 
17. The stars are shining. 18. Dandelions are blossoming by the 
road. 19. The baby has been crying. 20. Ralph has been sick. 
21. The cry was loud. 22. The cry was heard by a passer-by. 
23. Were you careful ? 24. The troops were exhausted. 25. They 
had been marching all night. 

33. Verb Phrases Separated. — Compare the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

The mail has come. 
Has the mail come ? 
The mail has just come. 

You observe that the parts of a verb phrase are 
often separated by other words. Other examples 
are : — 

I do not yet know. 

Has the man in the moon been married indeed? 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 37 

EXERCISE 22. 

Point out the verb phrases in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. What did you see? 2. The leaves are slowly changing. 
3. He will certainly lose his place. 4. I have not seen him yet. 
5. She will sometimes lose her temper. 6. Why is he running 
away? 7. Have you finished your lesson? 8. We are now read- 
ing "Tom Brown's School Days." 9. Did the man in the boat see 
the thief? 10. May not the coat have been taken by some one 
else? n. A general's orders should always be promptly obeyed. 
12. He had a few days before been elected captain of the team. 

To the Teacher. — Power to recognize the verb, whether it con- 
sists of one or more words, is vital in language work, and until the 
pupil has acquired this power, further analysis should not be at- 
tempted. 

When dealing with verb phrases, which are difficult for children, 
caution the pupil against taking too much or too little as to the verb. 
Insist on the verb, the whole verb, and nothing but the verb. 

If more drill is needed than is provided in the foregoing exer- 
cises, let the pupils make lists of the verbs in other exercises in this 
book, or on certain pages of their readers. 



CHAPTER IV 

OF COMPLEMENTS 

34. Verbs of Complete Predication. — Examine the 
following sentences : — 

Subject. Predicate. 



The wind arose. 
The lightning flashed. 
The rain fell. 

In each of these sentences the verb makes a com- 
plete assertion. 

A verb that by itself can form a complete predi- 
cate is called a Verb of Complete Predication. 

35. Verbs of Incomplete Predication. — Now let us try 
to make assertions with the verbs "are," "was," 
" became," " frightened," " built," " have : " thus, 

Subject. Verb. 

These men are 

Tennyson became 

The Romans built 

Battleships have 

You see at once that something is wanting. We 
have not in these groups of words said anything, 
for the verbs are not complete in themselves. 



OF COMPLEMENTS 39 

A verb that cannot by itself form a complete 
predicate is called a Verb of Incomplete Predica- 
tion. 

36. Complements Defined. — In order to form a 
predicate with a verb of incomplete predication 
we must add a completing word : thus, 



Subject. 


, — 


Predicate. — , 


A 


Verb, 
are 


Complement. 


These men 


soldiers. 


Tennyson 


became 


poet-laureate. 


The Romans 


built 


ships. 


Battleships 


have 


armor. 



Definition. — The completing word added to a 
verb in order to form a predicate is called a Comple- 
ment (" completing part "). 

Caution. — Complements, which must be added to make the 
predicate complete, are to be carefully distinguished from words 
that may be added to make the meaning more precise. For exam- 
ple, in the sentence "The rain fell fast," the word "fast" is not a 
complement, for we should have a complete sentence without it. 

37. Attribute Complements. — Are all complements 
of the same kind ? In order to answer, let us ex- 
amine some typical sentences, taking first the fol- 
lowing : — 

Subject. Verb. Complements. 

Tabby is a cat. 

Tabby looks wise. 

In these sentences the complements describe or 
explain the subject. 



4 o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Definition. — A complement that describes or ex- 
plains the subject is called an Attribute Complement. 

38. Object Complements. — Let us examine, now, 
the following sentence : — 

Subject. Verb. Complement. 

Tabby catches mice. 

In this sentence you observe that the verb 
" catches " denotes an action which involves two 
things, the doer of the action, and the object on 
which the action falls. The doer of the action is 
named by the subject "Tabby;" the complement 
" mice " names the object on which the action falls. 

Definition. — A complement that denotes the ob- 
ject on which the action of a verb falls is called an 
Object Complement. 

Since the object complement denotes the object 
directly affected by the action of the verb, it is often 
called the Direct Object, or, more briefly, the Ob- 
ject. 

To the Teacher. — As all teachers of language know, the 
important distinction between objects and attribute complements 
is a stumbling-block to many pupils. Yet the distinction is not 
difficult, if presented in the right way. It may help backward 
pupils to point out that an attribute complement refers to the same 
person or thing as the subject, while an object complement refers to 
a different person or thing, except in such sentences as "I cut 
myself." 

At this stage no attention need be paid to the distinction be- 
tween predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, which will naturally 



OF COMPLEMENTS 41 

take care of itself later. "One thing at a time;" and the "one 
thing" at this stage is the distinction between objects and at- 
tribute complements. Whether the latter are nouns or adjectives 
makes, at present, no difference. 

The following is a convenient form to employ in doing the fol- 
lowing exercises as written work: — 



s 


V 





A 


Tabby 


looks 




wise. 


Tabby 


catches 


mice. 





EXERCISE 23. 

Complete the following sentences by supplying appropri- 
ate complements to the verbs, and tell whether the com- 
plements which you supply are objects or attribute comple- 
ments: — 



1. Squirrels crack - 

2. Grocers sell 

3. Lincoln became 

4. Lee was . 

5. Charles saw 

6. The sun gives — 



7. Columbus discovered 

8. Farmers raise . 

9. The sky is . 

10. The air grew . 

11. The room looks . 

12. I feel . 



EXERCISE 24. 

1. To each of the folloiuing subjects add an appropri- 
ate predicate consisting of a verb and a complement, and 
tell whether the complement is an object or an attribute 
complement : — 



42 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

i. Hens . 7. Carpenters . 

2. Jewelers 8. Monkeys . 

3. Cats . 9- Clouds . 

4. We . 10. Mary . 

5. Birds . 11. Soldiers . 

6. Elephants . 12. Trees . 

2. Construct two sentences containing object comple- 
ments ; two containing attribute complements. 

EXERCISE 25. 

Point out the complements in the following sentences, 
and tell whether tlicy are objects or attribute comple- 
ments : — 

1. Tom broke a window. 2. Bruno bit the tramp. 3. Chaucer 
was a poet. 4. Who killed Cock Robin? 5. Who will toll the 
bell? 6. Saul was made king. 7. Some one took my bicycle. 
8. Demosthenes and Cicero were orators. 9. Do you study Latin ? 
10. None but the brave deserve the fair. 11. Righteousness exalteth 
a nation. 12. A man's house is his castle. 13. The bird forsook 
her nest. 14. Arnold turned traitor. 15. She turned her back. 
16. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman. 17. Sir Samuel Baker was 
a great hunter. 18. He killed many lions, tigers, and elephants. 
19. Britannia rules the waves. 20. Augustus was made emperor. 
21. Comparisons are odious. 22. King Alfred was called Truth 
Teller. 23. Who wrote "The Star-spangled Banner?" 24. To- 
night no moon I see. 25. The laws of nature are the thoughts of 
God. 26. The two roads run parallel. 27. The kings of Egypt 
were called Pharaohs. 28. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 
29. Ethel grew tall, beautiful, and queenly. 30. The dove found 
no rest for the sole of her foot. 31. A wise son maketh a glad 
father. 

To the Teacher. — If more drill on objects and attribute comple- 
ments is needed than is provided in the foregoing exercises, let the 



OF COMPLEMENTS 43 

pupils pick out and classify the complements in other exercises 
of this book, or on certain pages of their readers, using in written 
work the form suggested on page 41. 

39. Objective Attribute Complements. — Examine the 
following groups of words : — 

Subject. , — Predicate. — v 

Verb. Object. 



The Hebrews made Saul 

This made him 

In these groups of words we have subject, verb, 
and object ; yet we do not have complete sentences. 
Additional words are needed, to answer the ques- 
tions, " What did the Hebrews make Saul ? " and 
" What did this make him ? " The lack is supplied 
in the following sentences : — 

Subject. , Predicate. , 



Verb. Object. Second Complement. 



The Hebrews made Saul king. 

This made him vain. 

The use of the second complements, " king " and 
"vain," will appear if we write the sentences as 
follows : — 



Subject. 


/ — Predicate. — * 




Verb. 


Object. 




• ■> 


> •> 


The Hebrews 


made-king 
[crowned] 


Saul. 


This 


made-vain 
[spoiled] 


him. 



44 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

From this we see that " king " and " vain " help 
the verb " made " to express a certain action, and at 
the same time they describe Saul. 

Definition. — A word that completes the verb and 
describes the object is called an Objective Comple- 
ment. 

Other examples are : — 



Subject. 


, 


Predicate, 


. » 


A 


Verb, 
elected 


Object. Objecl 

Harry 


;ive Complement. 


We 


captain. 


Swinging 


makes 


me 


giddy. 


God 


struck 


Ananias 


dead. 


The Persian army 


drank 


the rivers 


dry. 


I 


consider 


him 


honest. 


EXERCISE 


26. 





Point out the objective complements : — 

i. Victoria made Tennyson a baron. 2. They sang themselves 
hoarse. 3. We cannot pump the ocean dry. 4. Attention held 
them mute. 5. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 
6. Get the horses ready immediately. 7. Cradles rock us nearer 
to the tomb. 8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 9. Dr. 
Holmes called Boston the hub of the universe. 10. Custom ren- 
ders the feelings blunt and callous, n. Madame de Stael called 
architecture frozen music. 12. Cromwell made the poet Milton 
Secretary of State. 13. God called the light day, and the dark- 
ness he called night. 14. All Napoleon's conquests did not make 
him happy. 15. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, 
the historian, blind for life. 

EXERCISE 27. 

1 . Fill the blanks ivith objective complements : — 



OF COMPLEMENTS 45 

1. They named the boy — ^-! 4. They called the state . 

2. The people made Washing- 5. Let* us appoint her . 

ton . 6. Do you think him ? 

3. Henry painted his house 7. Why did you choose me 

. 8. I consider her . 

2. Construct three sentences containing objective com- 
plements. 

40. Several Complements to One Verb. — Sometimes 
a single verb has several complements : as, 
Subject. Verb. Complements. 



We study arithmetic and grammar. 
Addison was a gentleman and a scholar. 

41. Several Verbs with One Complement. — Some- 
times a single complement belongs to several verbs : 
as, 

Subject. Verb. Complement. 



Noble minds loathe and despise falsehood. 



42. Summary of Sentence Types. — Gathering to- 
gether the different kinds of sentences that we have 
been studying, we find seven rudimental types of the 
simple assertive sentence : — 

(1) Dogs bark. Grace is singing. {Verb oj complete predica- 
tion.) 

(2) Tabby is a cat. Alice was feeling ill. {Verb with attribute 
camplement.) 

(3) John frightened Helen. Dorothy is studying arithmetic. 
{Verb with object.) 



46 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

(4) The Hebrews made Saul king. Mr. Smith is painting his 
house yellow. (Verb with object and objective complement.) 

(5) It rains. It is snowing. (Impersonal subject.) 

(6) It is wrong to steal. ("It" expletive.) 

(7) There was water in the well. ("There" expletive.) 

EXERCISE 28. 

Illustrate each of the types of the simple sentence with 
a sentence of your otvn. 

To the Teacher. — Indirect objects, which are modifiers rather 
than complements, are treated in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER V 



OF MODIFIERS 



The essential parts of language are Subject, Verb, 
and Complement. They are, as it were, the bones of 
every sentence, giving shape to the thought, and 
holding it together. But these essential parts are 
seldom used alone. Generally they are accompanied 
by words that fill out the thought, something as flesh 
rounds out the human form. 

43. Modifiers Defined. — Many words have mean- 
ings so wide that they must be narrowed before they 
exactly fit our thought. For example, the word 
" horses " applies to all the horses in the world ; but 
we seldom wish to speak of all horses. To bring 
the meaning of the word down to the measure of 
our thought we add to it some word, or words, by 
way of limitation or description : thus, 



Black 

Fast 

Beautiful 

Trotting ? horses. 
Your 
These 
Two 



4 S 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



Similarly there are many varieties of the action 
expressed by the verb " went : " as, 



He went 



cheerfully. 

slowly. 

there. 

again. 

soon. 

yesterday. 

twice. 



Often we use several limiting or describing words: 
as, 

Your beautiful black trotting horses. 
He often went there before. 

Definition. — A word used in some part of the 
sentence to limit or modify the meaning is called a 
Modifier. 

Modifiers may be attached to any or all of the 
principal parts of a sentence : as, 



Modified Subject. 


Modified Verb. 


Modified Com- 
plement. 


The 
Five 




yesterday 
often 




some 
small 




Big 

Spanish 
Smith's 


boys 


there 
once 

surely 


found 


rosy 
sour 
green 


* apples. 



EXERCISE 29. 

Join appropriate modifiers to the following words ;■ 








OF MODIFIERS 


i. oranges. 


11. 


houses. 


2. music. 


12. 


candy. 


3. clouds. 


13- 


dogs. 


4. roses. 


14. 


Come -. 


5. wind. 


i5- 


Go . 


6. Lie . 


16. 


Stay . 


7. Run . 


17- 


Step . 


8. Think—. 


18. 


Rise — . 


9. Sit . 


19. 


Sleep . 


10. balls. 


20. 


Speak and . 



49 



44. Caution. — Care must be taken not to con- 
found modifiers of the verb with complements. A 
modifier shows the time, place, manner, or degree of 
the action, being, or state expressed by the verb. 
An object complement denotes the object on which the 
action expressed by the verb falls ; an attribute com- 
plement points back to the subject, explaining or 
describing it. 

EXERCISE 30. 

In the following sentences tell whether the italicized 
words are objects, attribute complements, or modifiers of 
the verb : — 

1. Father called again. 2. Some savages are cannibals. 3. The 
regiment marched forth. 4. Gehazi went out a leper. 5. She sang 
a ballad. 6. Bismarck was a German. 7. She sang well. 8. The 
ship sailed yesterday. 9. The policeman looked surly. 10. Lot's 
wife looked back. 11. They went below. 12. The deacon's horse 
ran a race. 13. The deacon's horse ran away. 14. Vesuvius is a 
volcano. 15. Helen wrote yesterday. 16. She wrote a composi- 
tion. 17. She writes well. 18. Mother is sewing to-night. 19. She 



5 o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

is sewing my dress. 20. To-morrow will be Saturday. 21. The 
man turned his head. 22. The men turned pirates. 23. The man 
turned round. 24. The Romans were great soldiers. 25. Who 
fought there? 26. Who fought King Richard? 27. Who fought 
best? 28. The ship struck a rock. 29. The ship struck head-on. 

EXERCISE 31. 

Separate the follotving sentences into simple subject, 
verb, complements, and modifiers : — 

1. The old horse thrust his long neck out. 

Model for Oral Exercise. — A declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is "The old horse," consisting of the simple sub- 
ject "horse" modified by "old" and "The." The predicate is 
"thrust his long neck out," consisting of the verb "thrust" modi- 
fied by "out," and the object "neck" modified by "his" and "long." 

Model for Written Exercise. — 



s. 

horse 


V. 

thrust 
lout 


0. 

neck 


old 






long 


The 


his 



2. Every dog has his day. 3. Many hands make light work. 
4. Little strokes fell great oaks. 5. An undevout astronomer is 
mad. 6. The postman comes daily. 7. We often meet nowadays. 
8. Sometimes we exchange a few words. 9. We seldom converse 
long. 10. Here he comes. n. They walked up and down. 
12. Where is your hat? 13. When shall I see you? 14. Where 
did you find those apples? 15. I have nearly finished my work. 
16. We shall surely expect you to-morrow. 17. Perhaps your 
sister will come too. 18. To and fro and in and out the wan stars 
danced between. 19. Why did you come here to-day? 20. Have 
you much time? 21. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 22. Mean- 
while we did our nightly chores. 23. This good news arrived yes- 
terday. 24. The first carriage contained four persons. 25. A 



OF MODIFIERS 51 

large black dog carried the basket. 26. The plowman homeward 
plods his weary way. 27. The cold November rain is falling dis- 
mally. 28. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

29. Gayly the troubadour 
Touched his guitar. 

EXERCISE 32. 

Separate into their parts in a similar manner the sen- 
tences in exercise 30. 

45. Indirect Objects. — Compare the following sen- 
tences : — 

(a) Jack gave a penny. 

(b) Jack gave me a penny. 

In each of these sentences the word " penny " is 
an object complement, indispensable to the predi- 
cate. Giving, however, involves a receiver as well 
as a thing given, and in the second sentence this 
receiver is indicated by the single word " me," which 
is called an Indirect Object, in distinction from 
" penny," which is the direct object. Other ex- 
amples are : — 

Mother bought Alice a doll. 
She made Ruth a new dress. 

Definition. — A word used to denote the object in- 
directly affected by the action of a verb is called an 
Indirect Object. 

The indirect object of a verb denotes the object to or for whom 



5- 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



the action is performed. But not every word answering the ques- 
tion "to whom or what?" or "for whom or what?" is an indirect 
object. For example, the italicized words in the following sen- 
tence are not indirect objects: "Mother went to town and bought 
me a doll for a dollar." 

EXERCISE 33. 

Point out the indirect objects in the following sen- 
tences : — 

i. Will you do me a favor? 

2. He paid the men their wages. 

3. Give me liberty, or give me death. 

4. He wrought the castle much annoy. 

5. Riches certainly make themselves wings. 

6. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 

7. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

8. Owe no man anything, but to love one another. 

9. The God who gave us life gave us liberty at the same time. 
10. If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink, 
n. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, as the swift 

seasons roll. 

EXERCISE 34. 

1 . With the following verbs form five sentences, each 
containing an indirect object : — 

bring make promise send tell 

46. Appositives. — Compare the following sen- 
tences : — 

Paul was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 

Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero, emperor 
of Rome. 



OF MODIFIERS 53 

In the second sentence, you observe, the meaning 
of" Paul " and of " Nero " is made clear by setting 
next to each of them a modifier consisting of another 
name for the same person or thing. 

Definition* — A name set next to another name by 
way of explanation, and denoting the same person or 
thing, is called an Appositive (Latin, "set next to"). 

The explanatory name is said to be in Apposition 
with the name which it explains. 

Punctuation. — If an appositive is accompanied 
by other words, it is usually set off by commas. 
Thus : " Newton, the great mathematician, was 
very honest." 

EXERCISE 35. 

In the following sentences point out the words in ap- 
position : — 

1. Iago, the great boaster, made a bow for Hiawatha. 

2. The postman comes, the herald of a noisy world. 

3. The meek ey'd Morn appears, mother of dews. 

4. The Acadian farmers were free from envy, the vice of re- 
publics. 

5. We, the people of the United States, do ordain and establish 
this Constitution. 

6. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial 
fire, conscience. 

7. The poor wren, the most diminutive of birds, will fight against 
the owl. 

8. Somewhat apart from the village, Benedict Bellefontaine, 
the wealthiest farmer of Grand Pre, dwelt on his goodly acres. 



54 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

9. Silently one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, blos- 
somed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 

10. This was the wedding morn of Priscilla, the puritan maiden. 

11. Our fathers' God, to thee 
Author of liberty, 

To thee I sing; 
Long may our land be bright 
With freedom's holy light; 
Protect us by thy might, 
Great God, our King ! 

EXERCISE 36. 

Construct three sentences containing appositives. 

47. Modifiers of Modifiers. — Thus far we have con- 
sidered only modifiers of subject, verb, and comple- 
ment. But modifiers are themselves often modified, 
and we find phrases attached to phrases, clauses at- 
tached to clauses. Thus : — 

Fanny sings very well. 

Subject. Verb. 

Fanny sings 

I well. 
I very 

48. Analysis. — When, in order to show its struc- 
ture, we separate a sentence into its parts, we are 
said to Analyse it. 

Definition. — The process of separating a sentence 
into its parts in order to show its structure is called 
Analysis (Greek, " a taking apart "). 

49. Diagrams. — It is sometimes convenient, as a 
time-saving device, to show the fundamental struc- 



V. 


0. 


ike 


game 
[the 




1 of baseball. 



OF MODIFIERS 55 

ture of a sentence by means of a graphic represen- 
tation called a Diagram. For example, the struc- 
ture of the sentence, 

All boys like the game of baseball 
may be exhibited thus : — 



All I 



This diagram shows at a glance that the sentence 
has three principal parts, and that the subject has 
one modifier, the object two. 

Similarly, the structure of the sentence, 

The lion and the unicorn 
Were fighting for the crown, 

may be shown thus : — 



lion 
TheJ~ 

and 
unicorn 



the 



were fighting 

I for the crown. 



Groups of words used with the force of single 
words, are best treated as units and not broken up 
into parts. 

To the Teacher. — The chief value of the diagram is that it 
enables the teacher to test a pupil's insight into sentence-structure 
with a minimum of time and effort. The chief objection to it is 



56 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

that, being mechanical, it is unnatural as an expression of logical 
relations, reducing the beautiful subtleties of language to hard and 
fast lines, wresting the words out of their order, and fostering in 
the pupil mechanical ideas of the English sentence. Used occasion- 
ally and in moderation, it is a help; but it should not attempt to go 
beyond the graphic separation of subject, verb, complements, and 
modifiers; and it should never be allowed to usurp the place of 
oral analysis, which remains the chief instrument of the teacher 
for developing quick perception and easy expression. 

The author doubts the expediency of ever extending the use of 
the diagram beyond the expression of the fundamental logical struc- 
ture of the sentence. To attempt to show graphically all grammat- 
ical relations leads to niceties of detail in the diagram which turn it 
into a puzzle requiring a key. When a pupil becomes concerned 
not so much with the use of a word as with how to express that use 
graphically, the purpose of the diagram has become perverted, and 
the real object of analysis is lost sight of. 

EXERCISE 37. 

Analyse tJie follotving sentences : — 

i. He was a very tall man. 2. He was wholly unfit for his position. 
3. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 4. I was very kindly received. 
5. Go directly south. 6. You read very much too fast. 7. Do 
not show your feeling too plainly. 8. That was not done well 
enough. 9. I will surely disturb you no more. 10. The current 
runs very fast here. n. You are far too hasty. 12. I hope to 
be quite well very soon. 



CHAPTER VI 

OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 

50. Modifying Phrases. — Compare the modifiers in 
the following sentences : — 

(i) Read carefully. 

(2) Read with care. 

(3) Hercules was a strong man. 

(4) Hercules was a man 0} great strength. 

In (1) "Read" is modified by a single word, 
" carefully." In (2) it is modified by a group of 
words, " with care," having the force of the single 
word " carefully." 

In (3) the word " strong" modifies " man." In 
(4) " strong " is replaced by the group of words, 
" of great strength," having the force of the single 
word. 

Observe, also, that neither of the groups of 
words, " with care " and " of great strength," 
contains a subject and a predicate. 

Definition. — A group of words used as a single 
word and containing neither subject nor predicate is 
called a Phrase. 

EXERCISE 38. 

Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the 
phrases and telling what they modify: — 



58 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

i. The wind blows through the trees. 

Model for Written Analysis. — 

S. V. 

wind blows 



The | |through the trees. 

2. The flakes of snow come out of the clouds. 3. Blue birds 
build in hollow trees. 4. The judge rode slowly down the lane. 
5. A ray of light shone through the window. 6. I shot an arrow 
into the air. 7. A man of honor always speaks the truth. 8. Under 
a spreading chestnut tree the village smithy stands. 9. During 
the morning we played on the beach. 10. The beauty of Cinderella 
was much admired at the ball. n. The cabin in the woods has 
a roof of bark. 12. During the storm the force of the torrent up- 
rooted the trees along the river's bank. 13. The shadow on the 
dial marks the hour of the day. 14. On bright spring mornings 
groups of merry children are seen in the park. 15. In the spring 
a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast. 

EXERCISE 39. 

Reivrite the folloiving sentences, using single words 
instead of the phrases : — 

1. She had curls of gold. 2. The steamer brought a thousand 
emigrants from Italy. 3. A house of brick stood in that place. 
4. My life is full of happiness. 5. A cold wind is blowing from 
the west. 6. She was without a penny. 7. On every day we 
work. 8. We will meet you at some place. 

EXERCISE 40. 

Change the folloiving words into equivalent phrases, 
and use the phrases in sentences of your own making: — 

1. here 4. now 7. then 

2. silver 5. attentively 8. worthless 

3. American 6. homeward 9. silent 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 59 

EXERCISE 41. 

1. Narrow the meaning of the following words by 
adding to them modifying phrases : — 



1. Clouds . 


4. News . 


7. Sit . 


2. A ride . 


5. Wind . 


8. Write . 


3. A house . 


6. He went . 


9. The fox ran 



51. Punctuation. — Phrases that might be omitted, 
or that interrupt the natural movement of the sen- 
tence, are usually set off by commas. Thus : — 

(1) Mary, faithful to her promise, returned soon. 

(2) Hearing a shout, she ran to the door. 

(3) It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. 

EXERCISE 42. 

(Review: Modifying Phrases.) 

Analyze the follozving sentences : — 

1. We sped the time with stories old. 

Model for Oral Analysis.— A declarative sentence. The 
subject is "We." The predicate is "sped the time with stories old," 
consisting of the verb "sped" modified by the phrase "with stories 
old," and the object "time" modified by "the." 



for Written Exercise. — 




S. V. 


0. 


We sped 


time 


| with stories 


Tthe 


jold. 





2. A basket of fruit stood on the table. 

3. The borrower is servant to the lender. 



60 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

4. We saw a brick schoolhouse by the road. 

5. Surrounded by familiar faces, she breathed freely again. 

6. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent youth. 

7. Pins were first made by machinery in New York, in 1835. 

8. The author of "The eve of St. Agnes" was born in a stable. 

9. Glass windows were introduced into England in the eighth 
century. 

10. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by twelve 
thousand electric lamps. 

11. General Toral, hemmed in by the American army, surren- 
dered Santiago to General Shafter. 

12. Unwarmed by any sunset light, 
The gray day darkened into night. 

13. We piled with care our nightly stack 
Of wood against the chimney back. 

14. The moon, above the eastern wood, 
Shone at its full. 

15. Two robin redbreasts built their nest 
Within a hollow tree. 

EXERCISE 43. 

Construct assertions about the ideas expressed by the 
folloiving phrases : — 

1. Skating on the pond . 4. Chopping wood . 

2. Writing compositions . 5. To find a horseshoe . 

3. Playing football . 6. To tell a he . 

EXERCISE 44. 

Fill the blanks with phrases used as subjects :— 

1. annoys me. 4. would make you laugh. 

2. is bad luck. 5. is impossible. 

3. is hard work. 6. Does make you tired ? 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 61 

52. Modifying Clauses. — Compare the modifiers in 
the following sentences : — 

(i) They started early. 

(2) They started when the sun rose. 

(3) Stagnant water is unwholesome. 

(4) Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 

In (1) the word "early" modifies the verb 
"started." In (2) "early " is replaced by a group 
of words, " when the sun rose," having the same 
force. 

In (3) "water" is modified by a single word, 
" stagnant." In (4) it is modified by a group of 
words, " that is stagnant," having the force of the 
single word " stagnant." 

Observe, also, that the group of words " when 
the sun rose " has a subject, " the sun," and a pred- 
icate, " rose." " That is stagnant " has a subject, 
"that," and a predicate, "is stagnant." 

Definition. — A group of words containing a sub- 
ject and a predicate, and used like a single word as 
part of a sentence, is called a Clause. 

Phrases and clauses are alike in being groups of words used as 
single words. They differ in this: a clause contains a subject and 
a predicate, a phrase does not. 

EXERCISE 45. 

Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the 
clauses and telling what they modify : — 

1. This is the house that Jack built. 



62 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Model for Written Analysis — 

S. V. A. 

This is house 

the 
that Jack built. 

2. People who pay their debts are trusted. 3. I know .a bank 
whereon the wild thyme grows. 4. He that is strong is not always 
brave. 5. When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself. 6. Happy 
is the man that findeth wisdom. 7. When a building is about to 
fall, all the mice desert it. 8. Wherever I went was my poor dog 
Tray. 9. He did as he was told. 10. He jests at scars who never 
felt a wound. 11. I came because you called me. 12. The school 
stands on a hill that overlooks a beautiful lake. 13. A book is a 
friend whose face never changes. 14. It was the time when lilies 
blow. 15. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 16. Books 
are the legacies that genius leaves to mankind. 17. When the 
bough breaks, the cradle will fall. 18. The brown thrush sings 
as he sits in the tree. 

53. Punctuation. — Clauses should usually be set 
off by commas. Thus: — 

When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself. 

Water, which is composed 0} hydrogen and oxygen, is a necessity 
of life. 

Exception. — When the clause is very short, or necessary to the 
meaning, it is usually not set off by commas. Thus: "Make hay 
while the sun shines;" "The pursuit did not cease until the thief 
was caught;" "Water that is stagnant is unwholesome." See other 
examples in Exercise 45. 

Note. — The use or omission of the comma is often a matter of 
judgment, to be determined by the requirements of clearness. For 
instance, in the short sentence, "Whatever is, is right," the comma 
is used to show that the first "is" must be taken with what precedes 
it. In the short sentence, "Just as I awoke, the clock struck six," 
the comma is used to guard the reader against taking "the clock" 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 63 

as the object of "awoke." The comma shows that "awoke" ends 
a clause. 

EXERCISE 46. 

To the Teacher. — This formal exercise is intended for pupils 
who are -slow to distinguish phrases and clauses. 

Tell whether tJie following groiips of words are phrases 
or clauses : — 

1. How he got home. 2. Whether he is ready. 3. To tell the 
truth. 4. Doomed for a certain time to walk the night. 5. Stand- 
ing by the door. 6. Where Shakespeare was born. 7. Before 
leaving the city. 8. Before we leave the city. 9. Busied with 
public affairs. 10. That you have wronged me. n. Ignorant of 
his duty. 12. Having made his fortune. 13. Made by Indians. 
14. Till on dry land he lights. 15. Having struck twelve. 
16. Where the gray birches wave. 17. The train having started. 

EXERCISE 47. 

Narroiv the meaning of the following words by add- 
ing to them modifying clauses, and point out the subject 
and the predicate in each clause : — 

1. Men — — . 5. The States . 9. The ground is wet 

2. The pictures -. 6. Those . . 

3. Children . 7. He came . 10. The brook is 

4. The train . 8. Stay . deep. 

EXERCISE 48. 

Retvrite the folloiving sentences, changing the itali- 



ci. 



:ed words and phrases into clauses 



1. He listened to her every word. 2. She has a walking doll. 
3. After dinner we are going for a picnic. 4. At noon they go home 



64 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

for luncheon. 5. An honest man never lies. 6. This is the battle 
field. 

EXERCISE 49. 

Expand each of the following words or phrases into 
a clause, and use the clause in a sentence of your own : — 

1. Industrious. 3. Wise. 5. John's. 

2. By moonlight. 4. After sunset. 6. My. 

EXERCISE 50. 

(Review: Modifying Clauses.) 

Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the 
clauses and telling what they modify : — 

1. A glutton lives that he may eat. 

2. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 

3. Just as I awoke, the clock struck six. 

4. The evil that men do lives after them. 

5. God helps those who help themselves. 

6. Blessed is he that considereth the poor. 

7. The task which you have to do is easy. 

8. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

9. They that govern most make least noise. 

10. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

11. My eyes make pictures when they are shut. 

12. The city to which I refer is Constantinople. 

13. When the heart stops beating, life stops too. 

14. People who live in glass houses must not throw stones. 

15. Rex found a young robin, which had fallen from its nest. 

16. The fur which now warms a monarch once warmed a bear. 






OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 65 

17. The moon, that once was round and full, 
Is now a silver boat. 

18. My heart leaps up when I behold 
A rainbow in the sky. 

54. Phrases as Subjects. — Examine the subject of 
each of the following sentences, and, if possible, 
pick out the single word that may be Used as the 
simple or bare subject : — 

Subject. Verb. Complement. 



Tom's being there saved the house. 

To jump across the chasm was impossible. 

You observe that no single word can be taken as 
the bare subject. The assertion is made about the 
idea expressed by the entire phrase used as a sub- 
ject. 

55. Phrases as Complements. — Examine each of 
the following complements, and determine whether 
any single word may be taken as the bare comple- 
ment : — 

Subject. Verb. Object Complement. 



I saw him do it. 

Subject. Verb. Attribute Complement. 



That is out of bounds. 

Subject. Verb. Object. Objective Complement. 



They danced themselves out of breath. 



66 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

From this it is clear that phrases are often used 
as complements. 

EXERCISE 51. 

Complete the following sentences by adding ideas ex- 
pressed by phrases, and tell zvJiethier the phrases are 
used as objects, attribute complements, or objective com- 
plements : — 

i. Our house is . 5. What I want is . 

2. We intend . 6. Washington forced the British . 

3. He made us . 7. The Alps are . 

4. He seemed - — . 8. I like . 

EXERCISE 52. 

In the following sentences point out the phrases, and 
tell how they are used : — 

1. Study to be quiet. 

2. The vessels were of oak. 

3. Out of sight is out of mind. 

4. I found the book growing dull. 

5. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean. 

6. The price of wisdom is above rubies. 

7. A man should learn to govern himself. 

8. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord. 

9. England expects every man to do his duty. 

10. Men called the first steamboat "Fulton's Folly." 

11. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 

12. The greatest of faults is to be conscious of none. 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 67 

13. To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step toward 
knowledge. 

14. The only argument available with an east wind is to put on 
your overcoat. 

15. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means 
of preserving peace. 

16. Immodest words admit of no defense, 
For want of decency is want of sense. 

EXERCISE 53. 

Write a sentence containing a phrase used as subject ; 
as object ; as attribute complement ; as objective comple- 
ment. 

56. Clauses as Subjects. — Examine the following 
sentences, and consider whether any single word 
can be named as the bare subject. 

Consider, also, whether the groups of words ex- 
pressing the subject are phrases or clauses. Give 
the reason for your answer : — 

Subject. Predicate. 



What they say is not to the point. 

That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

From this it is clear that a clause may be used 
as the subject of a sentence. 

EXERCISE 54. 

Make assertions about the ideas expressed by the fol- 
lowing clauses : — 



1 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

i. What he wants . 

2. Whether you go or stay . 

3. That two and two make four . 

4. Whom it belongs to . 

5. Where he went . 

EXERCISE 55. 

Fill the blanks zvith clauses used as subjects . 



I. 

2. 

3- 


is unknown. 4. — 

will never be discovered. 5. — 

pleases me. 6. — 

EXERCISE 56. 


— is of no importance. 

— was foretold. 

— were his words. 



Review Exercise 12 {page 28), and tell whether the 
subjects are phrases or clauses. 

57. Clauses as Complements. — Examine the follow- 
ing sentences, and consider whether any single word 
can be named as the complement. Consider, also, 
whether the groups of words expressing the comple- 
mentary idea are phrases or clauses : — 
Subject. "Verb. Object. 



Galileo 


taught 


that the earth moves. 


He 


asked 


who I was. 


She 


showed 


where she had put it. 


Subject. 


Verb. 

is 


Attribute Complement. 


This 


what I want. 


Her chief fault 


was 


that she would not read. 



From this it is clear that clauses may be used 
object or attribute complements. 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 69 

EXERCISE 57. 

Fill the blanks with clauses used as complements, and 
tell whether they are used as objects or attribute comple- 
ments : — 

1. Do you know ? 5. His cry was . 

2. I fear . 6. Have you heard ? 

3. My hope is . 7. Things are seldom . 

4. We saw . 8. Let us ask . 

58. Clauses as Appositives. — Examine the following 
sentence : — 

The Arabs have a superstition that the stork has a human heart. 

Here the clause " that the stork has a human 
heart " is in apposition (46) with the word " super- 
stition." 

From this we see that clauses may be used as ap- 
positives. 

EXERCISE 58. 

Fill the blanks with clauses in apposition with tJie 
italicized words : — 

1. The report is untrue. 

2. The news has just come. 

3. We have just learned the fact . 

4. I cherish the hope . 

5. He made the assertion . 

EXERCISE 59. 

Point out the clauses in apposition in the folloiving 
sentences, and the word which each explains; — 



70 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

i. The popular idea that water is purified by freezing is a mis- 
take. 

2. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down 
his life for his friends. 

3. Dr. Watts's saying that birds in their little nests agree is 
far from being true. 

4. The proverb, "Never cross a bridge till you come to it," is 
old and of excellent wit. 

5. Books have this advantage over travel, that they convey 
information from remote times. 

6. The Declaration of Independence announced the truth that 
all power comes from the people. 

7. In the armory of Venice is this inscription: "Happy is that 
city which in time of peace thinks of war." 

EXERCISE 60. 

Write a sentence containing a clause used as sub- 
ject ; as object ; as attributive complement ; as an ap- 
positive. 

EXERCISE 61. 

(Review : Clauses) 
In the following sentences point out the clauses, and 
tell how they are used : — 

1. Ask if you may go too. 

2. Life is what we make it. 

3. What he does is well done. 

4. Show us where you found it. 

5. This is not what I asked for. 

6. What he promises, he will do. 

7. No one can tell how this will end. 

8. A servant must do what he is told. 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 71 

9. No man can lose what he never had. 

10. "I am going a-milking, sir," she said. 

11. He acknowledged that he had made a mistake. 

12. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 

13. Lawrence's dying words were, "Don't give up the ship." 

14. That the earth is round is proved by the shape of its shadow. 

15. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a continent. 

16. What a man puts into his head cannot be stolen from him. 

EXERCISE 62. 

(General Review.) 
Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the 
phrases and clauses, and tell how they are used : — 

1. The widow of the fisherman who was drowned lives in a cot- 
tage by the sea. 



Model for Written Analysis. — 
S. 
widow 


V. 

lives 




The 

of the fisherman 

| who was drowned 


| in a cottage 

| by the sea. 



2. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower 
And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 
Model for Written Analysis. — 
S. V. 

sat 

I U P 

I in the lighthouse tower 



wives 
ThreeT - 



and 

o. 

trimmed lamps 

I as the sun went down. | the 



3 Nearly all dogs like the water. 

4 Whether you go or stay is of little account. 



72 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

5. The man in the moon came down too soon. 

6. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

7. Bright the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 

8. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in every- 
thing. 

9. When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of 
envy dies in me. 

10. One of the many objections to betting is that it demoralizes 
the character. 

n. Animals that live in the Arctic regions among snow and ice 
have white fur. 

12. Near the "bonny Doon" stands the little clay-built cottage 
in which Robert Burns was born. 

13. The deep cave among the rocks on the hillside was long 
the secret home of a family of foxes. 

14. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the 
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 

15. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports, made their 
playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and In- 
dians. 

16. The water of our brook, after flowing under the bridge and 
through the meadow, falls over little precipices of rock till it reaches 
the level of the lake, fifty feet below. 

17. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward became a 
distinguished statesman and philosopher, learned his trade in the 
printing office of his brother, who published a paper in Boston. 

18. A king sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis. 

19. Between the andirons' straggling feet 
The mug of cider simmered slow. 

20. A little nonsense now and then 
Is relished by the wisest men. 

21. I stood on the bridge at midnight, 
As the clocks were striking the hour. 



OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 73 

22. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls, 
With vassals and serfs at my side. 

23. Forth into the forest straightway 
All alone walked Hiawatha 
Proudly, with his bow and arrows. 

24. At the doorway of his wigwam 
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, 
In the land of the Dacotahs, 
Making arrowheads of jasper. 

25. At his side, in all her beauty, 
Sat the lovely Minnehaha, 
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes. 

26. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts, in glad surprise, 

To higher levels rise. 



CHAPTER VII 

OF SENTENCES SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 

59. Simple Sentences. — Examine the following sen- 
tences : — 

Subject. Predicate. 



a. The horses \ 

atl d were in the same stable. 



the cattle 



!took fright 
and 
ran away. 
c. The horses > , were fastened in the same stable 

and ) and 

the cattle ) ( were fed at the same time. 

Each of these sentences, you observe, consists of 
but one subject and one predicate, though several 
of the subjects and predicates are compound. 

Definition. — A sentence which contains only one 
subject and one predicate, either or both of which 
may be compound, is called a Simple Sentence. 

In a simple sentence with compound subject and predicate, 
every verb belongs to every grammatical subject, and every gram- 
matical subject belongs to every verb. 

60. Complex Sentences .—Examine the following 
sentence : — 

We went to the woods when school was over. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 75 

This sentence consists of the main clause, " We 
went to the woods," which is independent of the 
rest of the sentence ; and of the clause, " when 
school was over," which is subordinate to the main 
statement and dependent on it. 

Definition. — A clause which does not depend on 
another for its meaning or use is called an Independ- 
ent Clause. 

Definition. — A clause used as a dependent part of 
a sentence is called a Subordinate Clause. 

Definition. — A sentence containing one or more 
subordinate clauses is called a Complex Sentence. 

Subordinate clauses are clauses used (1) as modifiers, (2) as 
subjects, (3) as complements, (4) as appositives. 

61. Compound Sentences. — Examine the following 
sentence : — 

The rain descended, | and | the floods came, | and | the winds 
blew. 

In this selection we see united into one sentence 
several that are complete in themselves. Although 
closely related in thought, they could be separated 
without injury ; therefore they are Independent of 
one another. Not being dependent one on another, 
they are said to be coordinate, that is, of equal rank. 

Definition. — A sentence containing several inde- 
pendent clauses is called a Compound Sentence. 



76 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

The independent sentences joined together may themselves be 
complex. 

62. Punctuation. — The independent parts of a 
compound sentence should be separated by com- 
mas or semicolons. 

The comma is used when the independent clauses 
contain no commas and are closely related. Thus : 

The rains descended, and the floods came. 

The semicolon (;) is used when the independent 
clauses (i) contain commas, or (2) are not very 
closely related. Thus : 

(1) Mary received a doll; Charles, a top. 

(2) An hour passed on; the Turk awoke. 

Semicolons are sometimes used instead of commas when the 
independent clauses are long. This is a matter of taste. See some 
of the sentences in Exercise 64. 

EXERCISE 63. 

Analyze the follozving sentences, first telling zvhether 
they are simple, complex, or compound : — 

Note. — In analyzing compound sentences, first separate them 
into their independent parts; then analyze each independent part 
separately. 

1. Man proposes, but God disposes. 

2. In the multitude of counselors there is safety. 

3. A cow is a very good animal in the field; but we turn her out 
of the garden. 

4. The words of his mouth were smoother than butter, but war 
was in his heart. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 77 

5. The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows 
himself to be a fool. 

6. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament 
showeth his handiwork. 

7. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 
greatness thrust upon 'em. 

8. The mountains look on Marathon, 

And Marathon looks on the sea. 

9. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind; 
The thief doth fear each bush an officer. 

10. Cowards die many times before their deaths; 
The valiant never taste of death but once. 

11. Where the bee sucks, there suck I; 
In a cowslip's bell I He. 

12. Through tatter' d clothes small vices do appear; 
Robes and furr'd gowns hide all. 

13. When beggars die, there are no comets seen; 

The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes. 

14. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 

15. I have found out a gift for my fair; 

I have found where the wood pigeons breed. 

16. He reads much; 
He is a great observer, and he looks 
Quite through the deeds of men. 

17. This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air 
Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself 
Unto our gentle senses. 

18. God moves in a mysterious way 

His wonders to perform; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea 
And rides upon the storm. 

19. Mount Blanc is the monarch of mountains; 

They crowned him long ago 



78 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, 
With a diadem of snow. 
20. The glories of our blood and state 

Are shadows, not substantial things; 
There is no armor against fate; 
Death lays his icy hands on kings. 






CHAPTER VIII 

OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

63. Elliptical Sentences Defined. — Language is an 
intensely practical matter, designed only to express 
thought, and never employed for its own sake. In 
using it we very properly think far more of clearness 
and force than we do of grammatical completeness. 
It is, therefore, both natural and proper that we 
should from time to time omit from our sentences 
grammatical parts which it is unnecessary to use, 
our meaning being well understood without them. 
Such omissions are especially common in familiar 
conversation. 

Definition. — The omission of part of a sentence is 
called Ellipsis (Greek, " a leaving out "). 

A sentence in which an omission occurs is called 
an Elliptical Sentence. 

The following examples of ellipsis should be care- 
fully studied. The words inclosed in brackets are 
usually omitted : — 

(i) This is important if [it is] true. 

(2) He fell while [he was] bravely leading his men. 

(3) Who did that? Jack [did it]. 

(4) I can't come. Why [can you] not [come]? 

(5) He has gone, no one knows where [he has gone]. 



8o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

(6) She has a pink gown, I [have] a blue [gown]. 

(7) Do you promise? I do [promise]. 

(8) I have never seen her, but Blanche has [seen her]. 

(9) He is not so tall as I [am tall]. 

(10) She put him off as long as [it was] possible [to put him off]. 

(11) She is seventeen [years old]. 

(12) School closes on the twenty -second [day of the month]. 

(13) [I] thank you. 

(14) You are the man [whom] I want to see. 

EXERCISE 64. 

What words, necessary to grammatical completeness, 
but not to the meaning, are omitted in the following 
elliptical sentences ? 

1. I walk when I can. 

2. He is witty but vulgar. 

3. I treat him as a friend. 

4. She is as pretty as ever. 

5. She loves Fido as well as I. 

6. She loves Fido as well as me. 

7. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

8. I love my mother more than he. 

9. I love my mother more than him. 
10. Who steals my purse steals trash, 
n. You have known her longer than I. 

12. She is more generous than prudent. 

13. Father made and I painted the boat. 

14. Are you dumb? If not, speak to me. 

15. Either a knave or a fool has done this. 

16. If the day be fine, and I can go, I will. 

17. A greyhound can run faster than a hare. 



OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 81 

18. He has never seen the ocean, but I have. 

19. You should not imitate such a girl as she. 

2a Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? 

21. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and 
writing an exact man. 

22. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and 
some few to be chewed and digested. 

23. We must take the current when it serves, 
Or lose our ventures. 

24. Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind; 
And therefore is winged Cupid painted blind. 

25. Blow, blow, thou winter wind! 
Thou are not so unkind 

As man's ingratitude. 



PART II 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



CHAPTER I 

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Having in Part I studied sentences as wholes and 
become familiar with their general structure, we are 
now prepared to study the uses and forms of single 
words. 

63." Words Classified According to Function. — Our 
language contains more than two hundred thousand 
words ; but when we examine the ways in which 
these words are used in sentences, we find that we 
can arrange them all in a few general classes accord- 
ing to their function, that is, according to what they 
do. These general classes are called the Parts of 
Speech. 1 

64. Nouns. — Examine the italicized words in the 
following sentence : — 

The gallant crew of the battleship Maine were under perfect 
discipline. 

The italicized words, you observe, are names. 
Definition. — A word used as a name is called a 
Noun. 

I To the Teacher. — The definitions of the parts of speech seem to 
present no special difficulty to pupils ; the real difficulty is to recognize 
the different kinds of words as they occur. In this chapter, much 
space has been given to exercises. 



86 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

EXERCISE 65. 

Write the names of two things that you can see ; of 
two that you can hear but not see ; of two that you can 
feel but not see ; of two that you can taste but not see ; 
of two that you can smell but not sec ; of two that you 
can neither sec, taste, feci, hear, nor smell. 

EXERCISE 66. 

Point out the nouns in the follozving sentences : — 

i. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. Misery acquaints a man with 
strange bedfellows. 3. They that die by famine die by inches. 
4. Nothing is impossible to diligence and skill. 5. The music of 
the great organ sometimes sounds like the roll of thunder. 6. Pride 
goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall. 7. Soli- 
tude is as needful to the imagination as society is wholesome for the 
character. 

8. The tongues of dying men 
Enforce attention like deep harmony. 

9. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 

To the Teacher. — If more drill in the recognition of nouns is 
needed, Exercises 10 and 63 will be found suitable. 

65. Pronouns. — No one would ever say : " Charles 
bought Charles a top ; the top Charles afterward 
gave to Charles's sister Frances ; Frances wanted 
the top." Such a sentence would be both disagree- 
able to the ear and obscure : it might refer to one 
Charles and one Frances or to more than one. We 
should probably say instead : " Charles bought him- 
self a top, which he afterward gave to his sister 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 87 

Frances, who wanted it." In this sentence the ob- 
scurity and the monotonous repetition are both 
avoided by using the words " himself," " which," 
"he," " his," " who," and "it" — little words that 
indicate the objects referred to without naming 
them. 

In asking a question about some object the name 
of which we do not know, we represent the object 
by " who " or " what : " as, " Who is there ? " " What 
did you say ? " • 

Definition. — A word used to stand for a noun is 
called a Pronoun. 

EXERCISE 67. 

What is your name ? What five substitutes for your 
name do you use in referring to yourself f What five 
substitutes for names do you use in speaking of yourself 
and others together J^ What words do you use as substi- 
tutes for the names of persons to whom you are speaking ? 
of a boy about whom you are speaking? of a girl? of a 
thing ? of two boys ? of tJu'ee girls ? of four things ? 

EXERCISE 68. 

Point out the pronouns : — 

Then spake the chief butler unto Pharaoh, saying, I do re- 
member my faults this day: Pharaoh was wroth with his servants, 
and put me in ward in the house of the captain of the guard, me 
and the chief baker: and we dreamed a dream in one night, I and 
he; we dreamed each man according to the interpretation of his 
dream. And there was with us there a young man, an Hebrew, 
servant to the captain of the guard; and we told him, and he inter- 



88 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

preted to us our dream; to each man according to his dream he 
did interpret. And it came to pass, as he interpreted to us, so it 
was; me he restored unto mine office, and him he hanged. Then 
Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out 
of the dungeon: and he shaved himself, and changed his raiment 
and came in unto Pharaoh. (Genesis xli, 9-14.) 

To the Teacher. — If further drill in the recognition of pro- 
nouns is desired, Exercises 19, 50, 42, and 52 will be found suitable. 

66. Adjectives. — Many nouns have very wide 
meanings. The noun " horses," for example, ap- 
plies to all the horses in the world ; and to bring 
the meaning of the word down to the measure of 
our thought we add to it one or more distinguish- 
ing words or modifiers : as, 



Black 

Trotting 

Two 

These 

Some 



horses. 



Definition. — A word used to modify a noun or a 
pronoun is called an Adjective. 

Though the word "adjective" means "put next to," adjectives 
are often separated from the nouns os pronouns which they modify: 
as, 

You look happy. 

There, silent and still, lay the army. 

EXERCISE 69. 

Join appropriate adjectives to the following nouns, and 
use them in sentences : — 

1. House. 3. Soldiers. 5. Grass. 7. Flowers. 9. Cents. 

2. Bottle. 4. Paper. 6. Store. 8. Wisdom. 10. Money. 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 89 

EXERCISE 70. 

Point out the adjectives, and tell what each modifies : — 

1. Little strokes fell great oaks. 2. Please make no noise. 
3. Where did you find those big apples? 4. I found them in the 
third bin. 5. Let us climb yonder mountain. 6. Certain women 
were there. 7. All men must die. 8. Most boys like football. 
9. There are several sailboats on the lake. 10. Every dog has 
his day. 11. No school to-morrow! 12. He has enough money. 
13. Along both banks are beautiful shaded walks; and near the 
mill are two little islands covered with ancient trees. 

14. The stately homes of England, — 

How beautiful they stand 

Amid their tall ancestral trees, 

O'er all the pleasant land! 

To the Teacher. — If more drill in the recognition of adjec- 
tives is needed, Exercises 6 and 10 will be found suitable. 

67. Articles. — " A " or " an " and " the " are called 
Articles. 

68. Verbs. — Verbs have already been studied in 
Part I. 

To the Teacher.— Whether or not it is desirable at this point to 
review Chapter III of Part I must be determined by the teacher. 

69. Adverbs. — The action denoted by a verb may 
vary in time, place, manner, or degree. For exam- 
ple, a person may laugh now or to-morrow, here or 
there, loudly or quietly, much or little. Words 
used with verbs to express such modifications of 
time, place, manner, or degree are called Adverbs. 
Other examples are : — 



9 o 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



He went 



Adverbs. 




again, 
yesterday. 


- Time. 


yonder, 
before. 


- Place. 


cheerfully, 
thus. 


Manner 


twice, 
little. 


'. Degree. 



The attributes or qualities denoted by many ad- 
jectives may vary like the actions denoted by verbs ; 
therefore adverbs are often attached to adjectives : as, 

Adverbs. Adjective. 



rvery 
j rather 
He is i somewhat 
[too 



shy. 



Similarly, the ideas denoted by many adverbs 
may vary in degree ; therefore adverbs are often at- 
tached to adverbs : as, 



Adverbs. Adverb. 

f very ^ 



He writes 



rather 
more 



slowly, 



Gathering together these different uses of adverbs, 
we have the following definition. 

Definition. — An Adverb is a word used to modify 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 91 

EXERCISE 71. 

Join adverbs to the verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell what they show : — 

1. Come . - 5. We heard the noise . 

2. He will come . 6. The tired traveler slept . 

3. The ship sailed . 7. The soldier was wounded. 

4. The agent called . 8. Were you thrown from a horse ? 

EXERCISE 72. 

Pick out the adverbs in the following sentences, and 
tell what they modify : — - 

1. She sang well. 2. I was agreeably disappointed. 3. How 
is it done? 4. You have spoken truly. 5. I can hardly believe it. 
6. He was ill pleased. 7. Cut it lengthwise." 8. Tear it apart. 
9. Put them together. 10. He was pitched headlong into the 
sea. 11. I never saw her. 12. We came to school late yesterday. 
13. Once or twice we have met alone. 14. Ambition urges me for- 
ward. 15. Where is your hat? 16. Are you going far? 17. We 
are going abroad. 

EXERCISE 73. 

Insert appropriate adverbs in the follozving blanks : — 

1. good. 3. more. 5. tired. 7. sick. 

2. happy. 4. rich. 6. — — famous. 8. discouraged. 

EXERCISE 74. 

Point out all the adverbs, and tell what they modify : — 

1. Are you quite sure? 2. He was a very tall man. 3. He 
was wholly unfit for the position. 4. Iron is much heavier than 
aluminum. 5. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 6. The sky was 
nearly black. 7. Mother is somewhat better. 8. We were drip- 



92 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

ping wet. 9. The wide fringe is too dear. 10. The Alps are far 
grander than these mountains. 11. Trout are exceedingly shy. 
12. The walk was rather long. 



EXERCISE 75. 

Join appropriate adverbs to the adverbs in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. He ran fast. 4. Write carefully. 

2. She sings well. 5. I must go soon. 

3. She reads more. 6. Don't go far. 

EXERCISE 76. 

Point out all the adverbs and tell ivhatthey modify : — 

1. I was very kindly received. 2. Go directly south. 3. You 
read very much too fast. 4. Do not show your feeling too plainly. 
5. That was not done well enough. 6. I will surely disturb you 
no more. 7. We are indeed almost there. 8. He is always there. 
9. Yes, we unfortunately arrived too soon. 10. I surely expect him 
to-morrow, n. The current runs very fast here. 12. The shadow 
on the dial never goes backward. 13. To and fro, and in and out, 
the wan stars danced between. 14. She dances very well indeed. 
15. He is not much distressed. 16. Possibly he has forgotten how 
much you grieved. 17. The clock that usually stands here has 
never run accurately. 18. Why did you come to-day? 19. You 
are far too hasty. 20. You may do that once too often. 21. 
Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further; and here shall thy proud 
waves be stayed. 

22. The mouse that always trusts to one poor hole 
Can never be a mouse of any soul. 

To the Teacher. — If further drill in the recognition of adverbs is 
needed, Exercises 22, 31 and 42 will be found suitable. 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



93 



70. Prepositions. — Compare the following sen- 
tences : — 



(a) Robert ran to the house. 

(b) Robert ran past the house. 

In these sentences " to " and " past " show the 
relation of the house to Robert's running. To- 
gether with the word " house," and its modifier 
" the," they form modifying phrases. 

Definition. — A word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word is 
called a Preposition. 

Definition. — The noun or the pronoun used with 
a preposition is called the Object of the Preposition. 

Definition.- — A phrase consisting of a preposition 
and its object is called a Prepositional Phrase. 

Other examples are : — 

Prepositional Phrases 
used as Adjectives. 





' 


Noun or 




Preposition. 


Pronoun. 




on 


the table. 




under 


the chair. 




beneath 


the cover. 


The book 


below 


the dictionary 




near 


you. 




behind 


me. 



The preceding prepositional phrases are attached 
to a noun ; the following are attached to a verb or 
an adjective : — 



94 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Prepositional Phrases 
used as Adverbs. 







Noun or 




Preposition. 


Pronoun. 




f down 


the street. 


h walked - 


over 


the bridge. 




i. with 


him. 




f after 


sunset. 


It is long ■ 


< before 


dark. 




[ till 


morning. 



Though the word " preposition " means " placed 
before," a preposition and its object are often sepa- 
rated by other words ; and sometimes the preposi- 
tion comes after its object : as, 

He came with at least two thousand men. 

The top of yon high eastern hill. 

What are you looking at? (i. e., At what are you looking?) 

EXERCISE 77. 

Show relation betiveen the following ivords by using 
appropriate prepositions : — 



I. 


Clouds us. 


5. Asleep sermon. 


2. 


Men wealth. 


6. Talk nothing. 


3- 


Train Boston. 


7. Dust door. 


4- 


Born Savannah. 


8. Travel England 



EXERCISE 78. 

Point out the prepositions and their objects and tell 
what the prepositional phrases modify: — 

The Battle of Plassey. 
At sunrise the army of the Nabob, pouring through many open- 
ings of the camp, began to move toward the grove where the English 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 95 

lay. Forty thousand infantry, armed with firelocks, pikes, swords, 
bows and arrows, covered the plain. They were accompanied by 
fifty pieces of ordnance of the largest size, each tugged by a long 
team of white oxen, and each pushed on from behind by an ele- 
phant. Some smaller guns, under the direction of a few French 
auxiliaries, were perhaps more formidable. The cavalry were 
fifteen thousand. The force which Clive opposed to this great 
multitude consisted of only three thousand men. — Macaulay. 

To the Teacher. — If further drill in the recognition of preposi- 
tions is needed, Exercises 8, 10, 38, and 62, will be found suitable. 

71. Conjunctions. — Examine the following : — 
Compound Sentences. 

Connecting 
Independent Clause. Word. Independent Clause. 



The wind blew, and the rain fell. 

I ran fast, but I missed the train. 

Complex Sentences. 

Connecting 
Principal Clause. Word. Subordinate Clause. 



Rob will go if Ethel goes. 

He says that he will come. 

Guy is older than Lewis [is old]. 

Connected Phrases. 

Connecting 
Word. 

By the people and for the people. 

Connected Words. 

Connecting 
Word. 

Sink or swim. 

From this it appears that some words are used as 



9 6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

mere connectives, joining together clauses, phrases, 
or words. 

Definition. — A word used to connect clauses, 
phrases, or words is called a Conjunction. 

When subordinate clauses come first, they carry 
with them the conjunction which connects them 
with the principal clause : as, 



Conjunction. 


Subordinate Clause. 

A 


Principal Clause. 


If 


Ethel goes 


Rob will go. 


Unless 


it rains 


we shall all go. 


That 


he will come 


is certain. 


Whether 


father can come 


is doubtful. 



Conjunctions sometimes occur in pairs, the first 
of the pair being not really a connective, but a sort 
of forerunner announcing that something will pres- 
ently be added : as, 

Either you or I must go. 

It is neither useful nor ornamental. 

The king was weak both in body and in mind. 

EXERCISE 78. 

Point out the conjunctions, and tell what they con- 
nect : — 

i. Handsome is as handsome does. 

2. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 

3. Better one bird in hand than ten in the wood. 

4. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 

5. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no 
other. 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 97 

6. So teach us to number our" days, that we may apply our hearts 
unto wisdom. 

7. Mend your speech a little, 
Lest it may mar your fortunes. 

8. O what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practice to deceive! 

EXERCISE 80. 

Fill the blanks with appropriate conjunctions : — 

1. Poor honest. 

2. Beautiful good. 

3. I wonder he will come. 

4. I could buy borrow it. 

5. I cannot deny he means well. 

6. He was punished, he was guilty. 

7. We cannot go we finish our task. 

8. He was punished, he was not guilty. 

9. I do not know I shall walk ride. 

10. She could dance sing, she played the piano. 

To the Teacher. — If further drill in the recognition of conjunc- 
tions is needed, Exercises 20, 63, and 64 will be found suitable. 

72. Interjections. — Examine the use of the itali- 
cized words : — 

Ouch l I cut myself. 

Bravo ! that was well done. 

You observe that " Ouch ! " and " Bravo ! " form 
no part of the accompanying sentences, but are sud- 
den outcries of feeling. Other examples are : 
" Oh ! " " Pshaw ! " " Alas ! " " Hurrah ! " « Fie ! " 



98 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Definition. — A word used as a sudden expression 
of feeling, but not forming part of a sentence, is 
called an Interjection. 

73. Punctuation. — An interjection should be fol- 
lowed by an exclamation point (!) 

EXERCISE 81. 

Point out the interjections in the following sen- 
tences : — 

Alas! she is ill. 

Bosh! I don't believe it. 

The soldiers are coming. Hurrah! 

Fie! a soldier, and afraid! 

5. Oh! what a beautiful view. 

6. Tut, tut! that is not true. 
Lo! the room was empty. 
Pshaw! it has begun to rain. 

EXERCISE 82. 

Write five sentences containing interjections. 

74. Caution. — It must not be supposed that the 
same word is always the same part of speech. Ex- 
amine, for instance, the function of "iron "in the 
following sentences : — 

(a) Iron is heavy. 

(b) An iron kettle hung on the crane. 

(c) Laundresses iron clothes. 

In (a) " iron " is a noun ; in (b) it is an adjective ; 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 99 

in (c) y a verb. It is clear, therefore, that the func- 
tion of a word may vary, requiring us to classify it 
sometimes as one part of speech, sometimes as an- 
other. 

EXERCISE 83. 

Tell to what part of speech each word in italics be- 
longs : — 

1. (a) The sun shines on rich and poor alike, (b) He is a rich 
man, but a poor scholar. 

2. (a) Farewell ! (b) Adieu ! (c) Where thou art gone adieus 
and farewells are a sound unknown. 

3. (a) I am very glad to see you. (b) You are the very man I 
was looking for. (c) "Very" is a common word. 

4. I was about to send for you, for I have something to show 
you. 

5. (a) Farmers till the soil, (b) Look in the till, (c) Stay till 
the bell rings, (d) Stay till the next train. 

6. (a) Do not lose a second, (b) I second your motion, (c) She 
won second prize, (d) You come second. 

7. (a) We walked afow/. (ft) What did you talk about ? (c) We 
talked about golf, (d) About a dozen girls were there. 

8. (a) The tops of many mountains are above the clouds, (b) The 
captain went above, (c) He rooms on the floor above. 

9. (a) All men are mortal, (b) He staked his all on the turn 
of a card, (c) ^// agreed with me. (d) That is all right. 

10. (a) Take either road. (6) He must either work or starve, 
(c) Ask either of them. 

11. (a) He ran /orf. (6) He was a /astf runner, (c) They /as/ 
twice in a week, (d) This /as/ lasted forty days. 

12. (a) I like him. (i) I shall not look upon his like again 

tore 



ioo THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

(c) He looks like his grandfather, (d) He talks like his mother 
(e) Like causes produce like results. (J) Like produces like. 

13. (a) He laughs too much, (b) Much learning hath made 
you mad. (c) She made much of him. 

14. (a) It was his only chance, (b) He went only to the corner. 
(c) "Only" should come next to the expression that it modifies. 

15. (a) Turn over a new leaf, (b) We came over the mountain, 
(c) We must have walked over six miles. 

16. (a) The house still stands, (b) All is still, (c) A $ti22 small 
voice, (d) Alcohol is made in a still, (e) With his name the mothers 
still their babes. 

17. (a) That bird is a thrush, (b) I thought /Aa/ it was a robin, 
(c) A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. (d) That you have 
wronged me doth appear in this, (e) That is what I meant. 

1. Use each of the following words first as a 7101m, then 
as an adjective, then as a verb : — 

blind calm last light roast sound spring steel 

2. Use each of the following words first as an adverb, 
then as a preposition : — 

about above behind down on up 

3. Use each of the following words first as an adverb, 
then as a preposition, then as a conjunction : — 

after before since 

75. Summary of the Parts of Speech. — The classes 
of words described in this chapter comprise all the 
words of our language. They may be summarized 
as follows : — 

Nouns: Words used as names. 

Pronouns: Words used to stand for nouns. 



RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 101 

Adjectives: Words used to modify nouns or pronouns by way 
of limitation or description. 

Articles: The words "a," "an," or "the." 

Verbs: Words used to assert. 

Adverbs: Words used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other ad- 
verbs. 

Prepositions: Words placed before nouns or pronouns to show 
their relation to other words. 

Conjunctions: Words used to connect clauses, phrases, or 
words. 

Interjections: Words used as sudden expressions of feeling, but 
not forming part of a sentence. 

EXERCISE 84. 

(Review.) 

Tell the part of speech to which each word in the fol- 
lowing sentences belongs : — 

i. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

2. Custom reconciles us to everything. 

3. The march of the human mind is slow. 

4. Patience is a necessary ingredient of genius. 

5. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

6. How blessings brighten as they take fheir flight! 

7. Assassination has never changed the history of the world. 

8. Fine manners need the support of fine manners in others. 

9. Honor and shame from no condition rise; 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 



CHAPTER II 



OF NOUNS 



I. CLASSIFICATION. 



A Noun is a word used as a name (83). 

76. Different Kinds of Nouns. — Examine the names 
in the following sentence : — 

The crew of the battleship Maine were under perfect discipline. 

" Battleship " and " Maine " both name the same 
object, but in different ways : " Battleship " is the 
name of any one of a class of ships resembling one 
another in structure and purpose ; " Maine " is the 
name of a particular battleship. " Crew " is the 
name of a body of men considered collectively. 
" Discipline " is the name of a condition. 

77. Proper Nouns. — The noun " Maine," in our 
illustrative sentence, is the name of a particular 
battleship. 

Definition. — A noun used as the name of some 
particular object, to distinguish that object from 
others of its kind, is called a Proper Noun. 
Other examples of proper nouns are : — 
Abraham Lincoln Monday Nashville Oregon Pike's Peak. 

Proper nouns, when written, begin with capital 



OF NOUNS 103 

letters ; so also do words derived from them : as, 
America, American, Americanism. 

78. Common Nouns. — The noun " battleship " is a 
name common to all ships of the same class. 

Definition. — A noun that is common to all objects 
of the same class is called a Common Noun. 
Other examples of common nouns are : — 

city day man mountain state 

Common nouns, when written, begin with small 
letters. 

EXERCISE 85. 

Write two proper nouns suggested by each of the fol- 
lowing common nouns : — 

boy city dog girl newspaper ocean river state 
EXERCISE 86. 

Give the common nouns that are applicable to the fol- 
lowing individual objects : — 
Brooklyn California Donald England Friday Helen July 

79. Collective Nouns. — The common noun " crew " 
is applied to a body of men considered collectively. 

Definition. — A noun used as the name of a num- 
ber of objects taken together is called a Collective 
Noun. 

Other examples of collective nouns are : — 

army (a collection of soldiers) 
fleet (a collection of vessels) 
herd (a collection of animals) 
This distinction is important when collective nouns are referred 



io 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

to by pronouns or are used as subjects of sentences. For instance, 
we refer to a committee as "it" when we think of it as a whole; 
when we think of the individuals who compose it, we use the pro- 
noun "they." Similarly we say, "The jury has retired," thinking 
of it as a single body; "The jury have dined," thinking of the mem- 
bers. 

EXERCISE 87. 

What objects are grouped together by the following 
collective nouns ? 

audience choir drove flock squadron swarm team 

EXERCISE 88. 

Classify the nouns in Exercise 66 (page 86). 

II. Gender. 

80. Gender Defined. — Observe the distinction be- 
tween the following nouns : — 

lion lioness 

One is the name of the male animal, the other of 
the female. This distinction is indicated by the in- 
flection "-ess." The distinction between the ob- 
jects themselves is called Sex. The distinction be- 
tween their names is called Gender. 

Definition. — Gender is a classification of nouns and 
pronouns according to the sex of the objects for 
which they stand. 

Definition. — A word denoting a male object is in 
the Masculine Gender. 

Definition.— A word denoting a female object is 
in the Feminine Gender. 



OF NOUNS 



i°5 



Definition. — A word denoting an object that has 
no sex is in the Neuter Gender (Latin, " neither " ). 

Words like "friend," "child," "thief," "bird," which apply 
without change to either male or female objects, are masculine 
or feminine according to the sex of the particular object spoken of. 

81. Ways of Denoting Gender. — There are three 
ways of distinguishing gender : — 



1. By a Feminine Suffix, usually " -ess."— 


In the following list 


note the occasional changes in the body of the word: — 


Masculine. 


Feminiue. 


Masculine 


Feminine. 


abbot 


abbess 


host 


hostess 


actor 


actress 


hunter 


huntress 


administrator 


administratrix 


idolater 


idolatress 


adventurer 


adventuress 


Jew 


Jewess 


baron 


baroness 


lad 


lass 


benefactor 


benefactress 


lion 


lioness 


count 


countess 


marquis 


marchioness 


czar 


czarina 


master 


mistress 


deacon 


deaconess 


patron 


patroness 


duke 


duchess 


preceptor 


preceptress 


emperor 


empress 


prince 


princess 


enchanter 


enchantress 


prophet 


prophetess 


executor 


executrix 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


giant 


giantess 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


god 


goddess 


sultan 


sultana 


heir 


heiress 


tiger 


tigress 


hero 


heroine 


waiter 


waitress 



2. By a Prefix Denoting Gender.— The following are important 
examples: — 



Masculine. 

bull-elephant 
cock -sparrow 
he-bear 



Feminine. 

cow-elephant 
hen-sparrow 
she-bear 



Masculine. 

he -goat 
man-servant 



Feminine. 

she-goat 
maid-sen-ant 



io6 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



3. By Separate Words.— These are to be learned from con- 
versation and reading. The following is a list of some that are 
often confounded or otherwise misused:— 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine 


bachelor 


spinster, maid 


monk 


nun 


buck 


doe 


ram 


ewe 


bullock 


heifer 


stag 


hind 


drake 


duck 


wizard 


witch 


gander 


goose 








EXERCISE 89. 





Give the gender of the nouns in the following selec- 
tion : — 

Dr. Primrose and the Face Wash. 

As we expected our landlord the next day, my wife went to 
make the venison pasty. Moses sat reading, while I taught the 
little ones. My daughters seemed equally busy with the rest; and 
I observed them for a good while cooking something over the fire. 
I at first supposed they were assisting their mother, but little Dick 
informed me, in a whisper, that they were making a wash for the 
face. Washes of all kinds I had a natural antipathy to, for I knew 
that, instead of mending the complexion, they spoil it. I therefore 
approached my chair by sly degrees to the fire, and grasping the 
poker, as if it wanted mending, seemingly by accident overturned 
the whole composition, and it was too late to begin another. — Gold- 
smith: "The Vicar of Wakefield." 

EXERCISE 90. 

To the Teacher. — (1) and (2) should be used as a dictation exer- 
cise. Other words may be added from the foregoing lists at dis- 
cretion. 

i. Write the feminine word corresponding to : — 



abbot 


bachelor 


bullock 


drake 


marquis 


ram 


sultan 


buck 


czar 


duke 


hero 


monk 


Stag 


tiger 



OF NOUNS 107 

2. Write the masculine word corresponding to : — 
doe duck ewe goose heifer hind spinster witch 
III. NUMBER. 

82. Number Defined. — Examine the difference be- 
tween the words in the following pairs : — 

book fox ox man 

books foxes oxen men 

The first word of each pair suggests a single ob- 
ject; the second word suggests more than one. In 
the first three pairs the difference in meaning is 
brought about by the addition of a suffix ; in the 
last, by an internal change in the word. 

Definition. — A difference in the form of a word to 
distinguish objects as one or more than one is called 
Number. 

Definition. — The form of a word that denotes one 
object is called the Singular Number. 

Definition. — The form of a word that denotes 
more than one object is called the Plural Number. 

Number has an important influence on pronouns, 
verbs, and the adjectives " this " and " that." For 
example, we say : — 

This bell was ringing, but it has stopped. 
These bells were ringing, but they have stopped. 

83. Formation of the Plural. — Most nouns form 
the plural by adding " s " to the singular ; as, book, 
books. The following variations from this regular 
rule are important ; — - 



io8 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



i. "-es " — When the singular ends in a sound that does not 
unite with "s" alone, "es" is added, forming an additional sylla- 
ble: as, fox, foxes. 

2. Plural of Nouns Ending in " o. "—If the final "o" is 
preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i. e., by 
adding "s:" as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded by 
a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the plural by 
adding "es:" as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. The following 
common words, however, still form the plural by adding " s '' 
alone: — 

halo 

junto 

lasso 

memento 



banjo 


chromo 


burro 


contralto 


canto 


duodecimo 


casino 


dynamo 



solo 

stiletto 

torso 

tyro 

is preceded 



octavo 
piano 
proviso 
quarto 

3. Plural of Nouns Ending in " y. " — If the "j 
by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys. 

If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to "i" 
and "es" is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies; city, cities. 

4. Plural of Nouns Ending in " f." — The following nouns end- 
ing with the sound of "f" change "f" or "fe" to "v" and add 
"es": — 

beef elf knife life self shelf wife 

calf half leaf loaf sheaf thief wolf 

5. Survivals of Ancient Plurals. — In old English there were 
other ways of forming the plural, traces of which survive: — 

(1) Plurals in "-en." — These were once in very common 
use. The only surviving examples are: oxen, brethren, children. 
Kine (cows) is used in poetry. 

(2) Plurals by Inward Change. — Of this method the sur- 
viving examples are: foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, /ice- 
man, men; mouse, mice; woman, women. 

6. Plural of Proper Nouns.— Proper nouns, when made plural, 
are not changed internally: as, Henry, Henrys; Nero, Neros. 

Proper names preceded by titles, as "Mr. Smith," "Miss Smith," 
"Colonel Smith," are treated in two different ways. We say "the 



OF NOUNS 109 

Mr. Smiths," "the Mrs. Smiths," "the Miss Smiths," "the Colonel 
Smiths;" but we also say "the Messrs. Smith," "the Misses Smith," 
and "the Colonels Smith." 

7. Plural of Compound Nouns. — Most compound nouns form 
the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to the funda- 
mental part of the word, i. e., to the part which is described by the 
rest of the phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts; court-martial, courts-martial; 
aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. When no single word is fundamental, 
as in "forget-me-not," the sign of the plural is put at the end: as, 
forget-me-nots. Words like "spoonful," the compound nature of 
which has been almost forgotten, also take the sign of the plural at 
the end: as, spoonfuls, cupfuls. "Man-servant," " woman-serv- 
ant," and "knight-templar" often add the plural sign to both words: 
as, men-servants. 

Caution. — "Brahman," "Mussulman," "Ottoman," and "talis- 
man" are not compounds of "man." They resemble "German" 
and "Norman," and form the plural by adding "s:" as, Mussul- 
mans, talismans. 

8. Letters, Figures, and other Symbols are made plural by 
adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "There are more e's 
than a's in this word;" "Dot your i's, and cross your t's." 

9. Unchanged Plurals — Some names of animals are the same 
in both singular and plural. The important examples are: cod, 
deer, grouse, sheep, salmon, swine, trout. 

Some nouns of number and measure may be used in a plural 
sense without change of form. Important examples are: "Two 
brace of ducks;" "She bought three dozen;" "His years are four 
score;" "Ten head of cattle;" "Two hundredweight of iron;" 
"Three pair of horses;" "Twelve yoke of oxen." In these ex- 
pressions the plural meaning is sufficiently indicated by the pre- 
ceding numeral. 

EXERCISE 91. 

(Dictation Exercise.) 
Write the plural of the following nouns:— 
(1) Deer, trout, grouse. 



II0 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Apple, peach, rose, box, bush, grass. 

(3) Ox, child, tooth, goose, mouse, woman. 

(4) Mary, George, Harry, Miss Clark, Mr. Brown, Dr. Young. 

(5) German, Dutchman, Frenchman, Brahman, Mormon, Mus- 
sulman, Ottoman, talisman. 

(6) Ally, chimney, fairy, baby, mystery, turkey, body, journey. 

(7) Chief, calf, dwarf, fife, elf, grief, gulf, half, hoof, knife, leaf, 
loaf, roof, sheaf, shelf, strife, thief, wife, wolf. 

(8) Buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, banjo, dynamo, 
solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, negro, hero, chromo. 

(9) Man-of-war, goose-quill, spoonful, commander-in-chief, 
major-general, man-servant, court-yard, court-martial, father-in- 
law, step-son, forget-me-not, bill-of-fare, looker-on, knight-errant. 

84. Two Plurals. — We say " There are big fish 
in the lake," using fish in a plural, collective sense ; 
and we also speak of " The story of the three fishes" 
having in mind a story about three separate fish. 
From this it appears that some nouns have two 
plurals, which differ in meaning. The following is 
a list : — 

Singular. Plural. 

brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). 

cloth cloths (of different kinds), clothes (garments). 

die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play). 

fish fishes (separate objects), fish (collective). 

genius geniuses (persons of great ability), genii (spirits). 

index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra). 

penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money). 

shot shots (discharges), shot (balls). 

EXERCISE 92. 

Distinguish bcHveen : — 

1. How many shot (shots) did you count? 

2. The story tells of two genii (geniuses). 



OF NOUNS 



3. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence). 

4. He showed me some new cloths (clothes). 

5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold dust. 

6. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren). 

7. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets. 

8. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill. 

9. There are serious errors in the indexes- (indices) in this new 
algebra. 

85. Foreign Plurals. — Some nouns of foreign origin 
have peculiar foreign plurals. In the following list 
of such nouns, when two plural forms are given for 
the same noun, the English plural is preferable : — 

Plural 
( formulas 
(_ formulae 
geniuses (persons 
of great ability) 
genii (spirits) 
genera 
hypotheses 
f memorandums 
( memoranda 
oases 

parentheses 
phenomena 
( seraphs 
( seraphim 
strata 
tableaux 
theses 

EXERCISE 93. 

Dictation Exercise. 
1. Write the plural of '; — 

Alumna, analysis, bandit, beau, cherub, crisis, curriculum, datum. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


alumna 
(feminine) 


alumnae 


formula 


alumnus 


alumni 




(masculine 


> 


genius 


analysis 


analyses 




animalculum 


animalcula 


genus ("class") 


antithesis 


antitheses 


hypothesis 


bacterium 
bandit 


bacteria 
( bandits 
( banditti 


memorandum 
oasis 


beau 


( beaus 
( beaux 


parenthesis 
phenomenon 


cherub 


( cherubs 
( cherubim 


seraph 


crisis 


crises 


stratum 


curriculum 


curricula 


tableau 


datum 


data 


thesis 



112 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

formula, genius, genus, hypothesis, oasis, nebula, parenthesis, 
phenomenon, seraph, stratum, synopsis, tableau. 

2. Write the singular of: — 

Alumni, animalcula, bacteria, cherubim, curricula, data, genera, 
oases, phenomena, seraphim, strata, theses. 

EXERCISE 94. 

Construct sentences containing the plural of the follow- 
ing zvords, first consulting a dictionary for their mean- 
ing :— 

Aide-de-camp, ally, animalculum, antithesis, bacterium, canto, 
court-martial, crisis, curriculum, datum, elf, genus, hypothesis, 
memento, phenomenon, solo, stratum, talisman. 

To the Teacher. — This exercise may be extended at discretion 
by selecting additional words from the lists in Sections 83-85. 

86. Divided Usage. — Some singular nouns look 
like plurals, e. g., " alms ; " and some plural nouns 
are singular in sense, e. g., "measles." In regard 
to such nouns custom is divided, treating them at 
one time as singulars and at another as plurals. 

The following are generally treated as singular : 
amends, gallows, news, the United States, mathe- 
matics, optics, and other words in " -ics," except 
" athletics," which is generally plural. 

The following are generally treated as plural : 
ashes, assets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, oats, pincers, 
proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tongs, 
trousers, victuals, vitals. 

For further information on cases of doubtful usage 
a large dictionary must be consulted. 



OF NOUNS 113 

EXERCISE 95. 

Which of the italicized forms is preferable ? 

1. The dregs was {were) bitter. 

2. Ethics is {are) the science of duty. 

3. The assets of the company is {are) $223,000. 

4. Please pour this {these) suds on the rose bed. 

5. Where did you get this {these) pretty scissors? 

6. Why was this {were these) ashes dumped here? 

7. In many schools athletics is {are) carried too far. 

8. His riches has {have) taken to itself {themselves) wings. 

9. Mathematics is {are) harder for some persons than for others. 

10. The eaves of the house is {are) thirty feet above the ground. 

11. The proceeds of the lecture was {were) given to the Orphan 
Asylum. 

12. The United States has {have) informed Spain of its {their) 
intention regarding Cuba. 

13. Politics, in its {their) widest extent, is {are) both the science 
and the art of government. 

14. Their nuptials was {were) celebrated at the same time as 
that {those) of Bassanio and Portia. 

EXERCISE 96. 

Construct sentences illustrating the number of the fol- 
lowing nouns : — 

amends news oats physics pincers shears tongs trousers 

IV. CASE. 

87. Case Defined. — In the sentence "John has 
given Henry Annie's pencil," each of the four nouns 
bears a peculiar relation to other words. Three of 
them are related to the verb : " John," as subject, 
" pencil," as direct object, " Henry," as indirect ob- 



U4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

ject. "Annie's " is related to " pencil " by showing 
ownership — a relation indicated by the suffix " 's." 

Definition. — The form of a noun or pronoun that 
shows its relation to other words is called Case. 

Definition. — The form of a noun or pronoun that 
shows the relation of subject is called the Nominative 
Case. 

Definition. — The form of a noun or pronoun that 
shows possession is called the Possessive Case. 

Definition. — The form of a noun or pronoun that 
shows the relation of object is called the Objective 
Case. 

The nominative and objective cases, being always alike in modern 
English nouns, might be merged into one if it were not for the fact, 
that in pronouns these cases have distinct forms: as, / help him, 
and he helps me. 

88. Form of the Possessive Case. — In the Singu- 
lar number the possessive of nouns is formed, as a 
rule, by adding an apostrophe and " s " ('s) : as, 
" The boy's coat." 

Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new syllable. 
If this additional syllable makes an unpleasant sound, the "s" is 
"omitted, but the apostrophe is retained: as, "For goodness 1 sake." 
If the "s" is sounded, it is always written; and if it is written, it 
should be pronounced in reading. The putting in or the leaving 
out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. Whenever 
there is doubt it is well to add the "s:" as, "Horace's odes," 
"Charles's ball," "Dickens's 'David Copperfield.' " 

In the Plural number, when the plural already 



OF NOUNS 115 

ends in " s," the possessive case is formed by adding 
an apostrophe alone (') : as, "Boys' shoes." 

The plural possessive of those few nouns whose plural does not 
end in "s" is formed, as in the singular number, by adding an 
apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "Men's shoes." 

The possessive case of Compound nouns and expressions used 
as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the 
possessive to the end of the compound: as, "That is my sister -in- 
law's pony;" "This is the Prince of Wales's palace." 

When two or more persons possess a thing in common, the sign 
of the possessive is attached to the last name only: as, "John and 
Mary's home." 

Separate ownership is indicated by adding the sign of the posses- 
sive to each name: as, "Alice's and Jessie's dresses." 

EXERCISE 97. 

1. Write the possessive case, singular ajid plural, of 

the following nouns : — 

Actor, calf, child, countess, day, deer, eagle, elephant, fairy, 
farmer, fox, goose, horse, king, lady, lion, man, monkey, mouse, 
mouth, ox, prince, princess, thief, wife, witness, wolf, woman, year. 

2. Write the possessive case of — 

Charles, Dickens, Douglas, Eggleston & Co., father-in-law, 
Frederick the Great, Harper & Brothers, Henry the Eighth, his 
sister Mary, James, Jones, man-of-war, Miss Austen. 

89. Declension. — We are now prepared to draw 
up a scheme of the forms of any English noun for 
number and case : thus, 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative : 


man 


men 


dog 


dogs 


Possessive : 


man's 


men's 


dog's 


dogs' 


Objective : 


man 


men 


dog 


dogs 



n6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

When we give the forms of a noun or a pronoun 
we are said to Decline it. 

EXERCISE 98. 

To the Teacher. — Since the only difficulty in declining nouns 
lies in the writing of the possessive case, declension should always 
be a written exercise. 

Decline the following nouns : — 



calf 


deer 


Henry 


king 


monkey 


ox princess 


child 


fox 


James 


lady 


mouse 


prince wolf 



V. CONSTRUCTIONS. 

90. Construction Defined. — In the study of sen- 
tences the most important question about a noun, or 
any other part of speech, is its relation to the other 
words of the sentence. 

Definition. — The relation of a word to the rest of 
the sentence is called its Construction (Latin, "put- 
ting together"). 

91. Constructions of Nouns Summarized. — If we 

examine the constructions of the noun " day " in the 
following sentences, w.e shall find it used in twelve 
different ways : — 

i. Subject of verb : The day is past and gone. 

2. Attribute complement: To-morrow is the appointed day. 

3. Object complement : I've lost a day. 

4. Objective complement: God called the light day. 

5. Possessive : Another day's work is done. 

6. Appositive : Sunday, the day of rest, is precious to the laborer. 



OF NOUNS 117 

. 7. Adjective modifier: The day star arise in your hearts. 

8. Adverbial modifier: We waited a day. 

Note — In this construction the noun expresses measure of 
some kind. 

9. Object 0} preposition : Rome was not built in a day. 

10. Indirect object : Give every day its task. 

11. Exclamation : O happy day ! The battle's won. 

12. Vocative : Come, day, and chase the shadows of the night. 

Of these constructions the first eleven need no 
explanation beyond what has been said in preceding 
pages. The last requires explanation now. 

92. Vocatives. — Examine the following sentence: 

1. I am going a-milking, sir. 

Here, you observe, the word " sir " indicates the 
person to whom the sentence is addressed. 

Definition. — A noun used to indicate the person 
or thing addressed is called a Vocative (Latin voco, 
" I call "). 

Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with the subjects 
of imperative sentences. In "Come on, boys," "boys" is a vocative. 
The subject of the command "come on" is omitted as usual; if 
expressed, it would be "you:" as, "Come [you] on, boys." 

93. Punctuation. — The name of a person or thing 
addressed should be set off by commas. Thus : 
" Drink, pretty creature, drink." 

Point out the vocatives in the folloiving sentences : — 

2. Drink, pretty creature, drink. 



118 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. Give me of your balm, fir tree. 

4. Mr. President, my object is peace. 

5. Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State. 

6. Wave your tops, ye pines, in sign of worship. 

7. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue ocean, roll! 

8. Sir, I would rather be right than be President. 

9. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 
10. To arms ! To arms ! Sir Consul, 

Lars Porsena is here. 

EXERCISE 99. 

Construct sentences illustrating each of the ways in 
which nouns may be used. (It is not necessary to use the 
same noun.) 

94. Use of the Possessive Case. — It is sometimes a 
question whether to use the possessive case or a 
phrase beginning with " of," i. e., whether to say 
" Arnold's treason " or " the treason of Arnold." 
The tendency of the best modern usage is to con- 
fine the possessive case to nouns denoting living 
beings, and with them to use it only in instances of ac- 
tual or imagined possession : as, " Arnold's sword," 
" the treason of Arnold." Yet some short phrases, 
like " a week's wages," " a day's march," " a dollar's 
worth," " at death's door," " for pity's sake," are 
supported by the best usage. 

With pronouns still greater latitude is allowed. No one hesitates 
to write "on our account," "in my absence," "to their credit," 
"for my sake," "in his defense." 

The possessive case and a phrase introduced by "of" are not 
always exact equivalents. For instance, "John's story" means a 
story told by John; but a "story of John" means a story about John. 



OF NOUNS n 9 

EXERCISE 100. 

Express relation between the nouns in the following 
pairs by putting one of them in the possessive case or by 
using the preposition " of " as seems best from what you 
have learned in Section 94. Give the reason for your 
choice : — 

Witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the President, public reception; 
Delmonico, restaurant; battleship Maine, destruction; Charles the 
Second, reign; Henry the Eighth, wives; teacher, advice; Paris, 
siege; book, cover; princess, evening gowns; Spain, navy; Napoleon, 
banishment; Napoleon, camp chest; Demosthenes, orations; Webster, 
orations; gunpowder, invention; conscience, sake; general, horse; 
cat, claws; enemy, repulse; the United States, army; Major Andre, 
capture; mountain, top; summer, end. 

EXERCISE 101. 

Distinguish between the following : — 

1. Mother's love. Love of mother. 

2. A sister's care. Care of a sister. 

3. Ethel's drawing. A drawing of Ethel. 

4. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys. 

5. Admiral Dewey's reception. The reception of Admiral Dewey. 

6. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown. Let me tell you a 
story of Doctor Brown's. 

95. Case in Apposition. — Nouns in apposition are 
said to be in the same case. But when the nouns 
are in the possessive, the sign of possession is usu- 
ally attached only to one of them : as, " Jack the 
Giant Killer's boots." 

96. How to Parse Nouns. — When we describe a 



120 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

word as it stands in a sentence, we are said to Parse 
it. To parse a word we must give a description of 
its class, form, and use. 

To parse a noun we must give its — 

(i) Class. 

(2) Gender. 

(3) Number. 

(4) Construction. 

(5) Case. 

To the Teacher. — Easy exercises in the parsing of nouns are 
to be found in the paragraphs of any reader or piece of literature ; 
and such exercises should be used freely, partly to secure additional 
drill, and partly to show the pupil that grammar is not a detached 
study. 

The passages in Exercise 102 show an unusual variety of noun 
constructions and present an interesting exercise to bright or well- 
trained pupils. For ordinary children they may prove too hard. 

EXERCISE 102. 

Parse the nouns in the following selections : — 

I. 

A Farewell. 
My fairest child, I have no song to give you; 

No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray; 
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you 

For every day. 

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 

Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever 

One grand sweet song. — Charles Kingsley. 



OF NOUNS 

II. 

Evening in Paradise. 

Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad; 
Silence accompanied; for beast and bird, 
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale; 
She all night long her amorous descant sung: 
Silence was pleased. Now glowed the firmament 
With living sapphires; Hesperus, that led 
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon, 
Rising in clouded majesty, at length 
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light, 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw; 
When Adam thus to Eve: "Fair consort, the hour 
Of night, and all things now retired to rest, 
Mind us of like repose." 

— Milton: "Paradise Lost." 



CHAPTER III 

OF PRONOUNS 

A Pronoun is a word used to stand for a noun (65). 
The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its 
Antecedent. 

The antecedent of a pronoun is sometimes a phrase or a clause. 
Thus:— 

To sleep soundly, which is my habit, brings rest to the mind. 

Tom was there, but I didn't know it. 

The antecedent of a pronoun is often not expressed. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

97. Personal Pronouns Denned. — Examine the pro- 
nouns in the following sentence : — 

I have lost my pencil; please lend me yours till you need it your- 
self. 

" I," " my," and " me " stand for the person 
speaking, and cannot be used to refer to the person 
spoken to or spoken of. " You," " yours," and 
"yourself" stand only for the person spoken to. 
" It " is used only for a thing spoken of. 

Definition. — Pronouns that distinguish between 
the person speaking, the person spoken to, and the 
person or thing spoken of are called Personal Pro- 



OF PRONOUNS 123 

Definition. — A pronoun that denotes the person 
speaking is in the First Person. 

Definition. — A pronoun that denotes the person 
or thing spoken to is in the Second Person. 

Definition. — A pronoun that denotes a person or 
thing spoken of is in the Third Person. 

EXERCISE 103. 

Point out the personal pronouns in Exercises 19 and 
3 1 , and tell of each whether it stands for the person 
speakings the person spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of 

98. Personal Pronouns of the First Person. — Fill 

the blanks with personal pronouns representing (1) 
a boy speaking, (2) a girl speaking, and note the 
differences, if there are any : — 

know Mary. Mary knows . Mary is cousin. 

The pen she is using is . 

Fill each of the following blanks with a pronoun 
representing the speaker and some others : — 

love Carlo. Carlo loves . Carlo is dog. Yes, 

he is . 

You observe that personal pronouns of the first 
person are changed to show number and case. 

Tabulating the forms used in filling the blanks, 
we find that the personal pronoun of the first person 
is thus declined : — 



124 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 





Singular. 


Plural. 


iminative : 


I 


we 


ssessive : 


my, mine 


our, ours 


jective : 


me 


us 



EXERCISE 104. 

Construct sentences containing the different forms of 
the personal pronouns of the first person. 

99. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. — In 

the following selections examine the pronouns that 
stand for the persons spoken to : — 

BIBLICAL. 

Singular. Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth; and let thy 
heart cheer thee in the days of thy youth, and walk in the ways of 
thine heart, and in the sight of thine eyes: but know thou, that for 
all these things God will bring thee into judgment. 

Plural. Ye stand this day all of you before the Lord your God. 
Blessed are ye poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. 



Singular. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain; 
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 
Stops with the shore; — upon the watery plain 
The wrecks are all thy deed. 

Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow, — 
Such as creation's dawn behold, thou rollest now. 

Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. 

ORDINARY PROSE. 

Singular. Young gentleman, your spirit is too bold for your 



OF PRONOUNS 125 

years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires greater 
strength than yours. 

Plural. Come early, girls; and if you feel like it, bring your 
mandolins; I want to hear you play. 

These selections show that the pronouns used to 
represent the person spoken to differ according to 
the character of the language employed. In the 
Biblical and poetical passages they are, for the sin- 
gular, "thou," "thy," "thine," and "thee," accord- 
ing to the case ; for the plural, " ye," " your," 
"yours," and " you." In the ordinary prose pas- 
sages they are, for both singular and plural, " you," 
" your," and " yours." Tabulating these forms, we 
may say that the personal pronoun of the second 
person is thus declined: — 

Biblical and Poetic. Ordinary. 



Singular. Plural. Singular and Plural. 

Nominative: thou ye you 

Possessive : thy, thine your, yours your, yours 

Objective: thee you you 

EXERCISE 105. 

Construct sentences containing those farms of the 
-personal pronoun of the second person that are used in 
ordinary discourse. 

EXERCISE 106. 

100. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. — Fill 
the blanks with personal pronouns representing 



i 2 6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

(i) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl spoken of, (3) a tree 
spoken of: — 

is ten years old. I do not know height. I often go 

to' see . 

Fill the blank in the following sentence with a 
pronoun referring to (1) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl 
spoken of: — 

Tkis book is . 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with 
pronouns representing (1) two or more boys spoken 
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of, (3) two or more 
trees spoken of: — 

are each ten years old. I do not know heights. I 

often go to see . 

Fill the blank in the following sentence with a 
pronoun referring to (1) two or more boys spoken 
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of: — 

These books are . 

You observe that personal pronouns standing for 
persons or things spoken of vary with gender, 
number, and case. Tabulating the forms used in 
filling the blanks, we find that the personal pronouns 
of the third person are thus declined : — 





, 


— Singular. — 




, — Plural. — , 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


All Genders. 


Nominative : 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Possessive : 


his 


her, hers 


its 


their, theirs 


Objective : 


him 


her 


it 


them 



OF PRONOUNS 127 

EXERCISE 107. 

Construct sentences containing the different forms of 
the personal pronouns of the third person. 

101. Special Uses of "It." — The pronoun "it" 
has a variety of special uses : — 

(1) As substitute for a group of words : as, 

To cross the ocean was once a mighty undertaking ; now it is 
a mere pleasure trip. 

I heard that he was coming, but I didn't believe it. 

(2) As impersonal subject (25): as, 

Is it well with thee? 
// has been raining. 

(3) As impersonal object : as, 

They roughed it for two weeks. 

Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it. 

(4) As an expletive (26) : as, 

What pain it was to drown ! 
How is it that you come so soon ? 

EXERCISE 108. 

How is each " it " used in the following sentences : — 

1. I won't go, and that's an end of it. 2. It is excellent to 
have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant. 
3. There was nothing for it but to return. 4. Come and trip it as 
you go. 5. He deserved his punishment, and he knew it. 6. Is it 
far to London? 7. Low-born men like to lord it over their infe- 
riors. 8. 77 is I. 9. I will fight it out on this line if it takes all 



i 2 8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

summer. 10. It will soon strike ten. n. They footed it through 
the streets. 12. It is growing dark fast. 

102. Uses of the Nominative Forms. — The nomina- 
tive forms of personal pronouns — " I," " we," 
" thou," " he," " she," " they " — are used mainly in 
the following constructions : 

1. Subject oj a verb: as, "I am young;" "We are coming;" 
"He fell;" "She laughed;" "They live in New Orleans." 

2. Attribute complement : as, "Is it IV "It was not we;" "Was 
it he?" "I think it was she;" "No, it was they." 

3. Vocative: as, "O thou who hearest prayer." 

103. Uses of the Objective Forms. — The objective 
forms of the personal pronouns — " me," " us," 
" thee," " him," " her," " them," — are used mainly 
in the following constructions : — 

1. Direct object: as, "Help us, O Lord." 

2. Indirect object: as, "Give me your hand." 

3. Object oj preposition : as, "Show it to them." 

4. Subject oj infinitive: as, "Did you see him fall?" 

EXERCISE 109. 

Tell the case and construction of each personal pro- 
noun in Exercise 19; in Exercise 31; in Exercise 64. 

EXERCISE 110. 

To the Teacher. — In order that both eye and ear may be 

trained to correct forms of expression, it is a good plan, after the 
blanks in this and similar exercises have been filled, to write on the 
board such sentences as give pupils trouble, and to have them read 
aloud again and again. 

Another helpful exercise to the same end is to let pupils repeat 



OF PRONOUNS 129 

rapidly such forms as "It is I," "It is he," "It is she ;" "It is not we," 
"It is not they;" "Is it I?" etc., using in succession different nomi- 
native forms, and the affirmative, interrogative, and negative forms 
of the verb. 

Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blanks and 
give its construction : — 

1. I, me. 

1. Who will go? . 

2. He is taller than . 

3. He it not so old as . 

4. Wait for Helen and -. 

5. She knew that it was . 

6. She will come, and too. 

7. You and will go together. 

8. May Annie and go home ? 

9. It was that gave the alarm. 

10. If you were , would you go ? 

n. Will you go with John and ? 

12. Jessie gave Roy and a kitten. 

13. She let Annie and come home. 

14. Yes, you and were both invited. 

15. It makes no difference to you or . 

16. She invited you and to go driving. 

17. Everyone is going except you and . 

18. The kite was made for Harry and . 

19. Father expects you or to meet him. 

20. Between you and , he is losing his mind. 

21. Which do you think is the older, Carrie or ? 

22. When you saw Mary and , we were walking home. 

23. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls, among the rest. 



3 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

n. We, tts. 
i. He knew it was . 

2. It was whom you saw. 

3. boys are going swimming. 

4. They play golf more than . 

5. They know that as well as . 

6. Everybody was late except . 

7. Our parents are wiser than . 

8. The Smiths are going, and too. 

9. The Browns, as well as , are invited. 

10. It isn't for such as to ride in coaches. 

11. That is new doctrine among Americans. 

12. He took a picture of girls sitting in the boat. 

in. He, him. 

1. I knew it was . 

2. Was it you saw? 

3. It must have been . 

4. that is idle, reprove. 

5. His sister is darker than . 

6. If I were , I wouldn't go. 

7. Whom can I trust, if not ? 

8. and James played together. 

9. Let who can answer this question. 

10. What were you and talking about? 

11. Was it who objected to our going? 

12. To William and belongs all the credit. 

13. It makes no difference to either you or . 

14. I shook hands with all, among the rest. 

15. Not many could have played as well as . 

16. Have you ever seen Fred and together? 



OF PRONOUNS I 

17. What else can you expect from such as ? 

18. There isn't much difference between you and . 

19. that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple. 

iv. She, her. 

1. I am stronger than . 

2. It was or her mother. 

3. I wouldn't go if I were . 

4. and Constance sang a duet. 

5. Was it that came yesterday? 

6. When will you and come again ? 

7. Father told you and to stay here. 

8. Grace and met at dancing school. 

9. I invited them all, among the rest. 

10. With Edith and I have no trouble. 

11. Very few girls can play as well as . 

12. What can you expect from such as -? 

13. I supposed the tall, stately lady was . 

14. What is the trouble between you and ? 

15. Girls like you and should know better. 

16. Everybody came except and her brother. 

17. Have you ever seen Sarah and together? 

18. Father is afraid to let you or drive the colt. 

v. They, them. 

1. It was . 

2. It must have been . 

3. We are not so poor as . 

4. I never saw Guy and together. 

5. that talk must stay after school. 

6. that talk I will keep after school. 

7. It isn't for such as to dictate to us. 

8. None so blind as that will not see. 



i 3 2 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

9. Let none touch it but that are clean. 

10. Their opponents were heavier than . 

11. It makes no difference to either you or . 

12. It could not have been , for were at home. 

13. Few school-teachers could have done as well as . 

104. Use of Gender Forms. — Pronouns should be 
of the same gender and number as the nouns for 
which they stand. The following peculiar uses of 
gender forms require special mention (105) : — 

1. Words like trout and child, which apply to both male and 
female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronouns "it" and 
"its" when the object named is thought of as a mere thing, the sex 
being unknown or unimportant: as, "King Midas took a nice little 
trout on his plate, and touched its tail with his finger;" "The child 
reached out its little hands." 

2. Words like laborer and person, which apply to both men and 
women, are referred to by the masculine pronouns "he," "his," and 
"him" when there is no desire to emphasize distinctions of sex: as, 
"The laborer is worthy of his hire;" "Let every person do as he 
likes." In such cases "he," "his," and "him" stand for mankind 
in general, and include women as well as men. 

3. Sometimes animals are referred to by "he" or "she," even 
when no distinction of sex is intended. In such cases the mascu- 
line pronoun is used if the speaker fancies the animal to possess 
masculine qualities, such as strength, fierceness; the feminine pro- 
noun, if the speaker thinks the animal's qualities are rather feminine, 
such as timidity, gentleness. Examples are: "The tiger steals 
silently on his prey;" "The hare ran for her life." 

105. Gender in Personification. — Examine the fol- 
lowing sentence : — 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

You observe that the writer refers to spring, which 



OF PRONOUNS 



[ 33 



has neither life no/ sex, by a feminine pronoun. 
The explanation is that he imagined spring as a 
gracious goddess, and spoke accordingly. When 
we thus speak of an object without life as if it were 
a person, we are said to Personify it. 
Other examples are : — 

(a) The sun now rose upon the right; 
Out of the sea came he. 

(b) Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl. 

Gender in personification is determined by the same principle 
as in speaking of animals without regard to sex; things remarkable 
for size, power, strength, or other manly qualities are referred to as 
masculine; things remarkable for beauty, gentleness, grace, or other 
womanly qualities are referred to as feminine. 

EXERCISE 111. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appro- 
priate pronouns : — 

i. Every author has faults. 

2. Can a leopard change spots? 

3. Close in covert cowered the doe. 

4. The ewe lamb bleated for mother. 

5. The child was unconscious of danger. 

6. The heifer rubbed nose against the bars. 

7. A writer should be careful with pronouns. 

8. The goose had wandered from companions. 

9. The hind knew the dogs to be mortal enemies. 

10. The duck was pluming feathers after swim. 

11. Even a fool, when — = holdeth peace, is counted wise. 



i 3 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

12. If any person in the class needs a pencil, I will lend mine. 

13. Every witch, it was thought, kept a broomstick ready behind 
door. 

14. The wild beast from cavern sprang, the wild bird from 

grove. 

15. As for man, days are as grass: as a flower of the field, 

so flourisheth. 

106. Use of Number Forms. — Difficulties in the use 
of the number forms of personal pronouns arise 
mainly in connection with such expressions as " any- 
body," " everybody," " each," " either," " neither," 
and " nobody." Such expressions, in spite of the 
comprehensive meaning of some of them, are gram- 
matically singular ; and in literary English they are 
referred to by singular pronouns : as, " If anybody 
calls, ask him to wait." 

If the writer considered reference to sex worth while, he would 
say "ask him or her to wait." Ordinarily, however, he would use 
"him" only, taking for granted the application to women. 

EXERCISE 112. 

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns : — 

1. Each must take turn. 

2. Anyone can do this if tries. 

3. Has everyone finished work? 

4. Every girl can do this if tries. 

5. Either Mary or Lizzie will lend you pencil. 

6. Each pupil was requested to name ■ favorite color. 

7. Probably everybody is eloquent at least once in life. 

8. Man after man passed, carrying golf clubs with , 



OF PRONOUNS 135 

9. Each of the girls married well, at least in own opinion. 

10. Whoever loves school should do best to keep its 

school tone high. 

11. Whoso keepeth mouth and tongue, keepeth 

soul from troubles. 

12. The man and his wife were both there; but neither would 
tell what had seen. 1 

107. Compound Personal Pronouns. — Examine the 
form and uses of the italicized pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

(a) She herself told me. 

(b) We saw the Queen herself. 

(c) He cut himself. 

(d) They think too much of themselves. 

You observe that " herself," " himself," and 
" themselves " are formed from personal pronouns 
by adding the words " self" or " selves ; " and that 
they are used (a, b) for emphasis, or (c> d) after a 
verb or preposition to refer back to the subject of 
the verb. 

Definition. — A pronoun formed from a personal 
pronoun by adding "self" or "selves " is called a 
Compound Personal Pronoun. 

Definition. — A pronoun used after a verb or a 
preposition to refer back to the subject of the verb 
is called a Reflexive Pronoun. 

108. Uses of the Compound Personal Pronouns. — 

1 Observe that the meaning of this sentence changes according as we 
fill the blaqk with " he," " she," or " they." 



136 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The compound personal pronouns are properly used 
as follows : — 

i. For emphasis: as, "I will do it myself;" "The great globe 
itself shall dissolve ;" "We saw the king himself." 

2. As reflexives: as, "I cut myself ;" "We told him to give him- 
self plenty of time." 

Besides these well-established uses, the compound personal 
pronouns are sometimes employed as substitutes for simple per- 
sonal pronouns: as, "She invited Ethel and myself to go driving." 
This usage is avoided by the most careful writers. 

Sometimes, especially in poetry, a simple pronoun is used re- 
flexively: as, "Now I lay me down to sleep;" "He looked about 
him." 

EXERCISE 113. 

i . In the following sentences point out the compound 
personal pronouns, and tell whether they are used reflex- 
ively or for emphasis : — 

i. I myself have seen him. 2. I think myself happy. 3. Thou 
shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 4. Quit yourselves like men. 
5. He will tell you himself. 6. Whosoever shall exalt himself shall 
be abased. 7. Sinai itself trembled at the presence of God. 8. You 
have yourselves heard the report. 9. Why should you be so cruel 
to yourselves? 10. It is usually best to study by ourselves. 

II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

109. Demonstrative Pronouns Defined. — Examine 
the italicized pronouns in the following sentences : — 

This is my book; that is yours. 
These are my books; those are yours. 

In these sentences "this" (plural " these ") and 
" that " (plural " those ") are used to point out cer- 



OF PRONOUNS 137 

tain objects. Each is, in a way, equivalent to a 
gesture. 

Definition. — A pronoun used to point out is called 
a Demonstrative Pronoun. 

The only demonstrative pronouns are cc this " 
(plural " these ") and " that " (plural " those "). 

When "this" and "that" are followed by nouns they are 
Pronominal Adjectives: as, "This hook is mine;" "That word is 
hard to pronounce." 

EXERCISE 114. 

Construct sentences illustrating the use of the demon- 
strative pronouns, singular and plural. 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

110. Interrogative Pronouns Defined. — Examine the 
italicized pronouns in the following sentences : — 

Who is he ? Whom did you see ? Which is he ? 

Who is she ? What is that ? Which is yours ? 

Who are they ? What are these ? Which are yours ? 

Whose is this ? What do you want ? Which do you prefer? 

These pronouns, you observe, are questioning 
words. Each stands for the noun or pronoun that 
answers the question. 

Definition. — A pronoun used to ask questions is 
called an Interrogative Pronoun. 

Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative sen- 
tences, we find that the only interrogative pronoun 



138 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

which is changed is " who," and that it is declined 
as follows : — 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative : who 

Possessive : whose 

Objective : whom 

When "which" and "what" are followed by nouns they are 
Pronominal Adjectives : as, "Which book is yours?" "What 
new trick is this?" 

EXERCISE 115. 

Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following 
sentences , and tell the construction of each : — 

i. Who ran to help me when I fell? 2. What are the wild 
waves saying? 3. What care I how fair she be? 4. What do 
you read, my lord? 5. What is so rare as a day in June? 6. What 
did you ask for? 7. Whose dog is that? 8. Whom did you see? 
9. Whom were you speaking to? 10. Which of the samples have 
you selected? 11. Who do you think she is? 12. Whom do you 
take her to be ? 

111. "Who" or "Whom." — In spoken English 
" whom," as an interrogative form, has been prac- 
tically abandoned by most persons as an unneces- 
sary and cumbersome inflection ; but in literary 
English, and in the conversation of persons who have 
a strong feeling for grammatical consistency, " who " 
is used only in nominative relations, and " whom " 
in objective relations : as, " Who is that ? " " Whom 
did you see?" "By whom was this written?" 
" Whom are you making that sofa-pillow for? " 



OF PRONOUNS 139 

EXERCISE 116. 

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of pro- 
noun (" who "or" whom ") according to literary usage ', 
and give the reason for your choice : — 

1. do you mean? 

2. have we here? 

3. will you invite ? 

4. did you give it to ? 

5. do you think I am? 

6. are you writing to ? 

7. were you talking to? 

8. I don't know to send. 

9. do you take me to be ? 

10. I don't know to ask for. 

11. was that speaking to you? 

12. I do not know he has met. 

13. did you say sat beside you? 

14. do you think will be elected ? 

15. do you expect to call on next? 

16. do you think it was that called ? 

17. I do not know ■ will finish the work. 

18. He is going to be married to I don't know . 

19. should I meet yesterday but my old friend Jones! 

IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

112. Relative Pronouns Denned. — Compare the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

(a) The man is giddy. The man thinks the world turns round. 

(b) The man that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 



i 4 o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

In (a) we have two separate sentences about "the 
man," with nothing to show that they are related. 
In (b) the two sentences are brought into their 
proper relation by the word " that," which takes the 
place of the noun " man " as subject of one sentence, 
and connects this sentence with " man " in the other 
sentence, as a modifying clause. In other words, 
it is both pronoun and connective. 

Definition. — A pronoun which attaches to its an- 
tecedent a subordinate clause is called a Relative 
Pronoun. 

EXERCISE 117. 

Point out the relative pronouns in Exercise 50, and 
give their antecedents. • 

113. Relative Clauses. — A clause introduced by a 
relative pronoun is called a Relative Clause. 
• Compare the relative clauses in the following sen- 
tences : — 

(a) Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 

(b) The water, which was beautifully clear, gently lapped the 
side of the boat. 

(c) She brought the boy a glass of water, which he drank eagerly. 

In the first sentence the relative clause, "that is 
stagnant," limits or restricts the general meaning of 
" water " to the particular sort that is in mind. The 
clause cannot be removed without changing the 
meaning of the sentence. 

In the second sentence the relative clause, " which 



OF PRONOUNS 141 

was beautifully clear," describes the water which the 
speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the mean- 
ing of the word "water." The clause might be re- 
moved without injury to the sentence. 

In the third sentence the relative clause, " which 
he drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the 
word " water," but merely carries on the narrative, 
like the second member of a compound sentence. 
" Which " is, in fact, here equivalent to " and it," 
and the relative clause, though subordinate in form, 
is logically coordinate with the first clause. 

Definition. — A relative clause which limits or re- 
stricts the meaning of the antecedent is called a 
Restrictive Relative Clause. 

Definition. — A relative clause which describes the 
antecedent without restricting its meaning is called 
a Descriptive Relative Clause. 

Definition. — A relative clause which neither de- 
scribes nor limits, but merely carries on the narra- 
tive, is called a Progressive Relative Clause. 

114. Punctuation. — Descriptive and progressive 
relative clauses should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. 

Restrictive relative clauses should not be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

EXERCISE 118. 

1 . Point out the relative clauses in Exercises 50 and 
62, and tell whether they are restrictive, descriptive ', or 
progressive. 



142 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

1. Construct a sentence containing a restrictive rela- 
tive clause ; a descriptive relative clause ; a progressive 
relative clause. 

115. Relative Pronouns Distinguished. — The ordi- 
nary relative pronouns are " who," " which," 
"that," and "what." Only "who" is declined, 
and it is declined as follows : — 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative : who 

Possessive : whose 

Objective : whom 

Who, whose, and whom are used chiefly of per- 
sons, but sometimes of animals : as, " He prayeth 
best who loveth best ; " " The robins have suc- 
ceeded in driving off the blue jays who used to build 
in our pines." 

Which, as a relative pronoun, is used of animals 
or things. Sometimes it refers to an idea or thought 
expressed by a preceding phrase or clause : as, " I 
relieved his pain, which made him very grateful." 

That is used of either persons or things : as, 
" This is the house that Jack built ; " " Happy is 
the man that findeth wisdom." 

What is peculiar in that it combines the functions 
of both antecedent and relative pronoun : as, 

( that which ) _ 
" Imean "( what | Isay - 

To the Teacher. — Some grammarians would make "that" 



OF PRONOUNS 143 

obligatory whenever the relative clause is restrictive, reserving 
"who" and "which" exclusively for clauses that are merely de- 
scriptive or progressive. According to them, "He prayeth best 
who loveth best" ought to be "He prayeth best that loveth best." 
But this obligatory use of "that" in restrictive clauses has never 
been a rule of English speech, and is not likely to become one, 
partly because of the impossibility of using "that" after a preposi- 
tion, and partly because of the disagreeable sound of such combina- 
tions as " That remark that I made yesterday." As a rule, euphony 
decides in restrictive clauses between "who" or "which" and 
"that." 

EXERCISE 119. 

Insert appropriate relative pronouns in the blanks in 
the following sentences^ and give the reason for your 
choice : — 

1. Man is the only animal can talk. 

2. Time is lost is never found again. 

3. The dog bit the child has been killed. 

4. That is the man spoke to us yesterday. 

5. We have a mastiff, follows us everywhere. 

6. I met the boatman took me across the ferry. 

7. The crow dropped the cheese, the fox then ate. 

8. I worked six problems, was the best I could do. 

9. Do you know that man is just entering the car? 

10. Shakespeare was the most expressive man ever lived. 

n. We have done many things we ought not to have done. 

12. He does all he can does all can be expected. 

13. Her hair, was dark brown, was gathered in a Grecian 

knot. 

14. Why should we consult Charles, knows nothing of the 

matter? 

15. At the corner I met a policeman, consented to go with 



144 TH E PARTS OF SPEECH 

116. Gender, Number, and Person of Relative Pro- 
nouns. — In the nature of things the gender, number, 
and person of a relative pronoun are the same as 
those of its antecedent. Since relatives thus agree 
in number and person with their antecedents, it fol- 
lows that the form of a verb used after a relative 
should be the same as that which we should use 
after its antecedent. 

EXERCISE 120. 

Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give 
the reason : — 

i. She is one of the best mothers that has {have) ever lived. 
Caution. — The antecedent of "that" is "mothers." 

2. My room is one of those that overlook {overlooks) the lake. 

3. That is one of the best books that was {were) ever written. 

4. She is one of the writers who is {are) destined to be immortal. 

5. It was one of the best games that has {have) ever been played 
on our field. 

6. You are not the first man that has {have) been deceived by 
appearances. 

7. He is one of those restless boys who is {are) always wanting 
to do something. 

8. One of his many good traits that come {comes) to my mind 
was his modesty. 

117. Case of Relative Pronouns. — The case of a 
relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante- 
cedent, but is determined by its use in the clause 
in which it stands. It may be — 



OF PRONOUNS 145 

(1) The subject 0} a verb: as, "The lady who went out is my 
aunt." 

(2) A possessive modifier: as, "The boy whose manners you 
liked is my brother." 

(3) A direct object: as, "He whom thou lovest is sick." 

(4) The object of a preposition : as, "I know the person of whom 
you speak." 

Caution. — To determine the case of the relative " what," con- 
sider only its relation to the words of the substantive clause in 
which it stands. In "What followed was only a natural conse 
quence," it is the subject of "followed." In "What he did was 
well done," it is the object of "did." In "What I asked for was 
denied me," it is the object of the preposition " for." In each 
sentence the entire relative clause is the subject of the verb " was." 

EXERCISE 121. 

Tell the construction and the case of each relative pro- 
noun in Exercises 50 and 119. 

EXERCISE 122. 

Insert the proper form of pronoun ("who" " whom ") 
in each of the following blanks, and give the reason for 
your choice : — 

1. She is a girl I know is trustworthy. 

2. She is a girl I know to be trustworthy. 

3. We recommend only those we can trust. 

4. I met a man I have no doubt was your uncle. 

5. A lady entered, — — , I afterwards learned, was his aunt. 

6. He gave the watch to Norman, he thinks will take care 

of it. 

7. They have found the woman they thought had been 

murdered. 



146 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

8. We like to be with those we love and we know 

love us, let them be they may. 

118. " Whose " or " Of which." — " Whose," which 
is properly the possessive of the masculine or fem- 
inine " who," is sometimes used of neuter objects 
as a substitute for the longer and harsher " of which : " 
as, " The undiscovered country from whose bourne 
no traveler returns." When this substitution is 
not required by euphony it is avoided by careful 
writers. 

EXERCISE 123. 

Tell which of the following expressions you consider 
prefer able ^ and give your reason : — 

i. She asked for a book whose name (the name of which) I had 
never heard. 

2. The "White Captive" is a woman bound to a tree, in whose 
bark (the bark of which) arrows are sticking. 

3. Another side of one's education is the scientific — a side whose 
importance (the importance of which) is fast being recognized the 
world over. » 

4. Through the heavy door whose bronze network (the bronze 
network of which) closes the place of his rest, let us enter the church 
itself. 

5. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious ele- 
vations, on whose tops (the tops of which) the sun kindled all the 
melodies and harmonies of light. 

6. Beneath the sluggish waves of the Dead Sea lay the once 
proud cities of the plain, whose grave (the grave of which) was 
dug by the thunder of the heavens. 

7. Men may be ready to fight to the death for a religion whose 



OF PRONOUNS 147 

creed {the creed of which) they do not understand, and whose pre- 
cepts (the precepts 0} which) they habitually disobey. 

119. "As" and "But" as Relatives. — After the 
words " such " and " same " the word " as " is used 
as a relative pronoun : as, " Tears, such as angels 
weep, burst forth." After "such" the relative is 
always " as." After " same " it is "as " or " that," 
with a difference in meaning. 

"The same as" usually means "of the same kind:" as, "My 
trouble is the same as yours." "The same that" means "one and 
the same:" as, "He uses the same books that his brother does." 
This distinction, however, does not hold in elliptical sentences, 
where "the same that" is never found: as, "He uses the same books 
as his brother." Occasionally "who" or "which" is used instead 
of "that:" as, "This is the very same rogue who sold us the specta- 
cles" (Goldsmith); "With the same minuteness which her prede- 
cessor had exhibited" (Scott). 

Occasionally " as " is used as a substitute for 
" which " to refer to a preceding idea or thought : 
as, " The ship was frozen in, as often happens in 
polar regions." 

" But " is sometimes used as a relative pronoun 
equivalent to " that not " or " who not : " as, 

There is not a wife in the west country 
But has heard of the well of St. Keyne. 

EXERCISE 124. 

I. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the 
proper relative (" as" " that "), and give the reason 
for your choice : — 

1. Such I have give I thee. 



148 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

2. This is the same book my father used. 

3. I hold the same political opinions my father. 

4. I hold the same political opinions my father holds. 

5. These are not the same tramps were here yesterday. 

6. She is the same merry girl since her marriage — — she was 
before it. 

1. Construct sentences illustrating the uses of rela- 
tives after " such " and " same." 

120. Relative Pronouns Omitted. — The relative 
" that " (or its substitute), when it would be the ob- 
ject of a verb or a preposition, is often omitted : as, 
" The book [that or which] I left here is gone ; " 
" The girl [that or whom~\ you are looking for has 
not come yet." 

Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative 
case is omitted : as, " 'Tis distance [that] lends en- 
chantment to the view." 

121. Compound Relative Pronouns. — Examine the 
forms and uses of the relative pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

Whoever (i. e., Any person who) goes must start at once. 

Whosoever (i. e., Any person who) exalteth himself shall be 
abased. 

Take whichever (i. e., any which) you want. 

Whatever (i. e., Any thing which) he does he does well. 

Sell whatsoever (i. e., anything which) thou hast, and give to 
the poor. 

With regard to form you observe that the itali- 
cized pronouns are made from " who," " which," 



OF PRONOUNS 149 

and " what " by adding " ever " or " soever." With 
regard to use, (1) they perform the functions of both 
relative and antecedent, like "what" (115); and 
(2) they are very indefinite in their meaning, being 
equivalent to " any person who," " any which," 
or " anything which." 

Definition. — A pronoun formed from " who," 
"which," or "what" by adding the suffix "ever" 
or "soever" is called, with reference to its form, a 
Compound Relative Pronoun; with reference to its 
meaning, an Indefinite Relative Pronoun. 

122. " Whoever " or " Whomever." — The only dif- 
ficulty likely to arise in connection with the use of 
indefinite relatives lies in the words "whoever" 
and " whomever." One is a nominative form, the 
other an objective. " Give it to whoever comes to 
the door " and " Give it to whomever you see " 
are both correct. "Whoever" is the subject of 
"comes;" " whomever " is the object of "see." 
In each sentence the object of the preposition " to " 
is the relative clause, used as a noun. 

"Whosoever" and "whomsoever" are used in the same way: 
as, "Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be much re- 
quired;" "Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased." 

EXERCISE 125. 

Fill the blanks with the -proper forms (" whoever" 
" whomever "), and give the reason for your choice : — 

1. Ask you meet. 



150 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

2. Elect you wish. 

3. I will entertain — — you send. 

4. We will give it to you say. 

5. did it ought to be ashamed of himself. 

6. We will give it to seems to need it most. 

V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

123. Indefinite Pronouns Defined. — Examine the 
italicized words in the following sentences : — 

Some have gone. 
Each took his turn. 

You observe that " some " and " each " are sub- 
stitutes for names, but do not refer definitely to any 
particular individuals. 

Definition. — A pronoun that does not refer to any 
particular individual is called an Indefinite Pronoun. 

124. How to Parse Pronouns. — To parse a pro- 
noun one must give its — 

(1) Class. 

(2) Antecedent (if it has one). 

(3) Gender. 

(4) Number. 

(5) Person. 

(6) Construction. 

(7) Case. 

EXERCISE 126. 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences: — 

I. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 



OF PRONOUNS 151 

2. God helps them that help themselves. 

3. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself as he 
that putteth it off. 

4. I find the Englishman to be him of all men who stands firm- 
est in his shoes. 

5. Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savor, 
wherewith shall it be salted? 

6. I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute. 

7. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
Rough-hew them how we will. 

J 8. What's in a name ? That which we call a rose 

By any other name would smell as sweet. 
9. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches, — none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 

10. Go, lovely rose! 

Tell her that wastes her time and me 

That now she knows, 
When I resemble her to thee, 
How sweet and fair she seems to be. 

11. My mind to me a kingdom is; 

Such present joys therein I find, 
That it excels all other bliss, 

That earth affords or grows by kind: 
Though much I want which most would have, 
Yet still my mind forbids to crave. 

12. Some have too much, yet still do crave; 

I little have, and seek no more: 
They are but poor, though much they have, 

And I am rich with little store: 
They poor, I rich; they beg, I give; 
They lack, I have; they pine, I live. 



CHAPTER IV 

OF ADJECTIVES 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or 
a pronoun (66). 

125. Classification of Adjectives. — Adjectives may 
be arranged in two general classes, as follows : — 

i. Descriptive Adjectives, denoting qualities or attributes of 
objects: as, "A black hat." 

2. Limiting Adjectives, denoting which, how many, or how 
much : as, " Yonder mountains ; " " Three kittens; " "Great pleasure." 

Among limiting adjectives we distinguish Numeral Adjectives, 
denoting number: as, "Three kittens;" "Second base;" and Pro- 
nominal Adjectives, words often used as pronouns : as, "This (ad- 
jective) hat is mine;" "This (pronoun) is yours." Such words 
are pronouns when they stand for nouns; adjectives when they 
accompany nouns (109, 110, 123). 

126. Singular and Plural Adjectives. — The only 
adjectives that have separate forms for singular and 
plural are the pronominal adjectives " this " (plural 
" these ") and " that " (plural " those "). Mistakes 
in the use of these forms frequently occur in con- 
nection with such words as " sort " and " kind," 
which are grammatically singular. The following 
sentences are correct : " That kind of house is com- 
mon in New England ; " " How do you like this 
sort of horses ? " 



OF ADJECTIVES 153 

EXERCISE 127. 

Insert the proper form (" this" " these" " Mtf/," 
" those ") z'tz rac^ of the following blanks : — 

1. I do not like sort of men. 

2. We want no more of sort of goods. 

3. What do you think of kind of golf clubs ? 

4. Young gentlemen should let sort of thing alone. 

5. I always delight in overthrowing sort of schemes. 

127. Comparison of Adjectives. — Examine the ad- 
jectives in the following sentences : — 

This is a high mountain. 

That is a higher mountain. 

Yonder is the highest mountain of all. 

" High," " higher," and " highest " are all forms 
of the same adjective, and all denote the same 
quality ; but they denote it in different degrees. 
" High " merely denotes a quality ; " higher " de- 
notes that the object described has more of that 
quality than another object with which it is com- 
pared ; " highest " denotes that the object described 
has the most of the quality. 

Definition. — A difference in the form of an ad- 
jective to denote degree is called Comparison. 

Definition. — The simple form of an adjective is 
called the Positive Degree. 

Definition. — The form of an adjective that repre- 
sents an object as having more of a quality than an- 
other object is called the Comparative Degree. 



154 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Definition. — The form of an adjective that repre- 
sents an object as having the most of a quality is 
called the Superlative Degree. 

Sometimes the superlative degree is used when no 
comparison is intended : as, " My dearest mother." 
In such cases the superlative inflection has nearly 
the same force as the adverb " very." 

128. Methods of Comparison. — Examine the itali- 
cized forms in the following sentences : — 

I never knew a \ no er ,, \ man. 
( more noble \ 

He is the \ . s , , [ man I ever saw. 
( most noble > 

From this it appears that there are two ways of 
comparing adjectives : — 

i. By Inflection adding "er" and "est" to the positive to form 
the comparative and the superlative. 

2. By Phrasal Comparison using the adverbs "more" and 
"most." 

Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of 
two syllables, are usually compared by the addition 
of " er " and " est." 

Some adjectives of two syllables, and all longer 
adjectives, are usually compared by using " more " 
and "most." 

In general the method of comparison is a matter 
of taste, determined for the most part by the ear. 



OF ADJECTIVES 155 

EXERCISE 128. 

Compare the following adjectives : — 

Able, happy, honest, fearless, worldly, lively, careful, particular, 
unkind, earnest, beautiful, virtuous, proud, ungrateful. 

129. Irregular Comparison. — The comparison of 
the following adjectives is irregular : — 



Positive. 


Compar. 


Superl. 


Positive. 


Compar 


Superl. 


bad ~| 










f later 


latest 


evil > 




worse 


worst 


late 


flatter 


last 


ill J 








little 


less 


least 


far 




farther 


farthest 


manyl 






fore 




former 


f foremost 
[first 


much J 


more 


most 
1 nearest 


[forth, 


adv.] 


further 


furthest 


near 


nearer - 


[next 


good! 
well J 




better 


best 


old 


J elder 
[ older 


oldest 
eldest 



130. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison. — Some 
adjectives denote qualities that do not vary in degree : 
as, "straight," "perfect," "circular," "daily," 
" square," " round," " untiring." Strictly speaking, 
such adjectives cannot be compared ; yet custom 
sanctions such expressions as " straighter," " round- 
est," " more perfect," because they are convenient. 

131. Use of the Comparative and Superlative. — The 
comparative degree properly implies a comparison 
of two things or set of things ; the superlative, of 
more than two : as, " He is older than I ; " " She is 
the youngest of the family." 



156 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

In modern English, however, this distinction is not always fol- 
lowed, good writers frequently using the superlative when only 
two things are compared: as, "Who was the first, Ruth or Maude?" 
"He is the best of the two." In general, when two things or sets 
of things are compared, the comparative degree is preferable: as, 
"Which is the taller, Ruth or Maude?" 

The words denoting the objects compared are called the "terms" 
of the comparison. When two objects are compared, the latter 
term must exclude the former: as, "Iron is more useful than any 
other metal." When more than two objects are compared, the 
latter term must include the former: as, "Iron is the most useful 
of metals." 

EXERCISE 129. 

Construct sentences comparing the following things^ 
using first a comparative^ then a superlative form : — 

i. The large population of China; the smaller populations of 
other countries. 

Example. — China has a larger population than any other country. 
China has the largest population of all countries in the world. 

2. John, who is very mischievous; other boys in the school, who 
are less mischievous. 

3. Mary's recitations; the poorer recitations of her classmates. 

4. The population of London; the population of the other cities 
in the world. 

132. How to Parse an Adjective. — To parse an ad- 
jective one must tell — 

(1) Its class. 

(2) Its comparison. 

(3) Its use. 

EXERCISE 130. 

Parse the adjectives in Exercise 10, also in Exer- 
cise 74. 



CHAPTER V 

OF ARTICLES 

The Articles are the words " the " and " an " or 
"a." 

The articles always limit nouns, and therefore might be classed 
as limiting adjectives. But their uses are so peculiar and delicate 
that it is best to treat them separately. 

133. " An " or " A." — The choice between " an " 
and " a," which are different forms of the same word, 
is determined by sound. Before a vowel sound 
" an " is used; before a consonant sound "a" is 
used. 

Caution — Sound and spelling do not always coincide. For ex- 
ample, "one*' and "unit" begin with vowels, but the initial 
sounds are those of the consonants "w" and "y" in "won" and 
"you;" therefore we say "a unit," "such a one." "Honor" be- 
gins with a consonant, but the initial sound is that of the vowel 
"o" in "onset;" therefore we say "an honor." 

Usage is divided as to "a" or "an" before words beginning 
with "h" and accented on the second syllable. We say "an his- 
torical sketch" or "a historical sketch," according to taste. 

EXERCISE 131. 

Put the proper form of the article "an"or"a" be- 
fore each of the following expressions : — 

Article, onion, union, uniform, uninformed reader, universal be- 



158 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

lief, useful invention, umpire, unfortunate mistake, eulogy, European, 
hour, honest man, house, humble dwelling, habitual drunkard, 
hotel, heroic people, hereditary disposition. 

134. The Articles Distinguished. — Compare the ital- 
icized expressions in the following sentences : — 

Matt is mortal. 

The child is dying. 

A soldier stood on guard. 

" Man," unlimited by an article, applies to all 
mankind. " Child," limited by " the," applies to 
an individual, singled out as already before the mind. 
" Soldier," limited by " a," applies to an individual, 
singled out at random as a representative of his class. 
" The " points definitely to a particular object ; (C a " 
selects one, no matter which. 

Definition. — "The" is called the Definite Article; 
" an " or " a " is called the Indefinite Article. 

EXERCISE 132. 

Distinguish between — 
i. Give me a (one) pen. 

2. I have caught (a) cold. 

3. A black and (a) white cat. 

4. Bring me the (that) candle. 

5. Grass (The grass) is green. 

6. Earth (The earth) is heavy. 

7. I sprang to a (the) window. 

8. Birds (The birds) are singing. 

9. Men (The men) admired him. 
10. He has (a) trout in his basket. 



OF ARTICLES 159 

11. Bring me a (the) lighted candle. 

12. Trees (The trees) are in blossom. 

13. Man (The man) is a strange being. 

14. Wanted a cook and (a) housemaid. 

15. Men (The men) ran to give the alarm. 

16. There were few (a few) friends with him. 

17. He behaved with little (a little) reverence. 

18. The (That) road crosses the (a) mountain. 

19. A man (The man) on the shore rescued her. 

20. Mr. Smith (A Mr. Smith) called to see you. 

21. If you wish to have virtue (a virtue), you must practise it. 

22. Shall I tell you a (the) story of a (the) wolf and a (the) dog? 

EXERCISE 133. 

Insert the proper article in each blank, if an article 
is needed ; if no article is needed, leave the place blank : 

1. lion is king of beasts. 

2. What kind of bird is that? 

3. My favorite flower is violet. 

4. At present he is out of work. 

5. What sort of pen do you like? 

6. Colonel Waring died of yellow fever. 

7. He well deserves the name of scholar. 

8. Omit third and fourth page (pages). 

9. An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. 

10. There are two articles, the definite and indefinite. 

11. Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural. 

12. Two figures came slowly down the road; one was a 

man, other a boy. 

135. Caution. — Not every " the " is an article, nor 
every " a." 



i6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

In " The more they get the more they want," and 
similar constructions, " the " is an adverb, a survival 
of an old adverbial case-form of the pronoun " that." 

In " Who goeth a borrowing, goeth a sorrow- 
ing," and similar constructions, "a" is a survival 
of an old preposition. 

136. How to Parse Articles. — To parse an article 
one must tell — 

(i) Its kind. 

(2) What it limits. 

EXERCISE 134. 

Parse the articles in Exercises 1 and 9. 



CHAPTER VI 

OF VERBS 

A Verb is a word used to assert something. 

The verb is the instrument of assertion. Usually 
it denotes action ; less often, being or state ; some- 
times it is without meaning, having assertive power 
only (29). Sometimes it is a single word, sometimes 
a phrase (30). 

I. CLASSIFICATION. 

Classified according to meaning, verbs are either 
Transitive or Intransitive. 

137. Transitive Verbs. — Examine the verb in the 
following sentence : — 

John frightened Helen. 

In this sentence, " frightened " denotes an action 
which, from its nature, involves two persons : John, 
the doer of the action ; and Helen, who receives the 
action. In other words, the action which originates 
with John passes over, as it were, from him to 
Helen, who is affected by it. 

Definition. — A verb that denotes an action that 
passes over from the doer to a receiver is called a 
Transitive Verb (Latin transire, "to pass over"). 



162 the parts of speech 

In a sentence containing a transitive verb, three 
things are considered : the actor, the act, and the 
receiver of the act. 

The word naming the actor may be used as the 
subject, and the word naming the receiver may be 
used as the object complement of the verb ; or the 
word naming the receiver may be used as the sub- 
ject, and the name of the actor as the object of 
a preposition. Thus : — 

Subject. Action. Object. Subject. Action. Actor. 

A man shot a deer. A deer was shot by a man. 




/ \ 




Sometimes, when the subject of the verb names 
the receiver of the action, the actor is not mentioned ; 
but this does not change the nature of the verb, 
which remains transitive. Thus : — 

Subject. Action. 

A deer was shot. 



\ 



Verbs like "have," "own," "possess," "inherit," etc., though 
they do not express action or feeling, are nevertheless called transi- 
tive, because they involve two objects, the possessor and the thing 
possessed. 



OF VERBS 163 

To the Teacher. — A transitive verb is sometimes denned as "a 
verb that requires an object." This definition is satisfactory when 
the verb is in the active voice; but when the verb is in the passive voice, 
the definition confuses the pupil, since the passive voice transforms 
the object into the subject of the sentence. 

138. Intransitive Verbs. — Examine the verb in the 
following sentence : — 

John laughed. 

In this sentence, " laughed " denotes an action 
which involves only one person. The laughing 
ends with John, where it began. It does not pass 
over to any other object. Nothing else is affected 
by it. 

Definition. — A verb that denotes an action, feeling, 
or state that involves only the subject, is called an 
Intransitive Verb. 

139. Some Verbs Either Transitive or Intransitive. — 

The distinction between transitive and intransitive 
verbs is based solely on meaning and use, and if the 
meaning and use of a verb change, its classification 
changes too. Hence it happens that some verbs are 
at one time transitive, at another intransitive : as, 

Transitive : She wore a wreath of roses 

The night that first we met. 
Intransitive : Never morning wore 

To evening, but some heart did break. 

EXERCISE 135. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are 
transitive or intransitive : — 

1. I hear a voice. 2. The shrill bell rings. 3. The horse and 



164 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

rider reel. 4. The splendor falls on castle walls. 5. The rainbow 
comes and goes. 6. My good blade carves the casques of men. 
7. A troop of strange children ran at his heels. 8. He came to a 
rocky gorge in the mountains. 9. The little boy dipped his hands 
in the pool. 10. God scatters love on every side. 11. I leap on 
board. 12. With his knife the tree he girdled. 13. I shot an 
arrow into the air. 14. The lark at heaven's gate sings. 15. Long 
at the window he stood. 16. Vast meadows stretched to the east- 
ward. 17. Trifles make perfection. 18. Galileo invented the 
pendulum. 19. Month after month passed away. 20. Four times 
the sun had risen and set. 

EXERCISE 136. 

Construct ten sentences, using each of the following 
verbs first transitively, then intransitively : — 
break fly move return speak 

140. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished by 
Form. — A few verbs in common use are distinguished 
as transitive or intransitive by their spelling, the 
transitive being causative forms of the correspond- 
ing intransitive verbs. They are : — 

Intransitive. Transitive. 



Fall: as, "Divided we fall." 

Past, fell: as, "Great Caesar 

jell." 
Past Participle, 1 fallen: as, 

"She has fallen asleep." 



Fell ("cause to fall"): as, 
"Woodmen fell trees." 
Past, felled: as, "They 

felled all the good trees." 
Past Participle, 1 felled: as, 
"This tree was felled yes- 
terday." 



1 English verbs have two simple participles : the Present Participle, end- 
ing in "-ing," and the Past Participle, used in verb-phrases after forms 
of " be " and " have." 



OF VERBS 



'65 



Intransitive. 
Lie: as, "Lie still." 

Past, lay: as, "Behold, Sisera 

lay dead." 
Past Participle, lain: as, 

"Had he lain there long?" 

Rise: as, "Rise with the lark." 

Past, rose: as, "Then up he 

rose." 
Past Participle, risen: as, 

"The lark has risen." 

Sit: as, "Let us sit down." 

Past, sat: as, "We sat on 

the piazza." 
Past Participle, sat: as, 

"He has sat there all day." 



Transitive. 

Lay ("cause to lie"): as, "Lay 

the book down." 
Past, laid: as, "He laid the 

book down." 
Past Participle, laid: as, "He 
has laid the book down." 

Raise ("cause to rise"): as, 
"Raise your head." 

Past, raised: as, "He raised 
his head." 

Past Participle, raised: as, 
"He has raised his head." 

Set ("cause to sit"): as, "Set 

the lamp on the table." 
Past, set: as, "She set the 

lamp on the table." 
Past Participle, set: as, 

"She has set the lamp on 

the table." 



EXERCISE 137. 

Insert the proper word in each blank in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. Lie, lay, lying, laying, lain, laid. 



1. Let him 1 


here. 


2. It has never — 


— smooth. 


3. I found it 


- on the floor. 



4. Now I me down to sleep. 

5. Ireland s west of England. 

6. Slowly and sadly we him down. 

7. You had better down for a while. 



166 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

8. Hush, my dear, still and slumber. 

9. During the storm the ship at anchor. 

10. He told me to down, and I — ■ — down. 

11. The carpet does not smooth on the floor. 

12. I was so weary that I down in my clothes. 

13. He told me to it down, and I it down. 

14. After he had down he remembered that he had left his 

pocketbook ing by the open window. 

11. Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised. 

1. up, you lazy fellow. 

2. The price of corn has . 

3. Let them up and help you. 

4. She cannot get her bread to . 

5. Cain up against Abel, his brother. 

6. Many are they that up against me. 

7. Abraham up early in the morning. 

8. He himself up before I could reach him. 

9. " up," said I, "and get you over the brook." 

in. Sit, sat, set. 

1. Where do you ? 

2. Have you there long? 

3. down and talk a while. 

4. Let us a good example. 

5. She had to ■ up all night. 

6. The calamity heavy on us. 

7. Let us here and listen to the music. 

8. Yesterday we round the fire telling stories. 

9. He the basket on a rock, while he went to the spring. 



OF VERBS 167 

141. Auxiliary Verbs Denned. — Compare the uses 
of the verb " have " in the following sentences : — 

I have a ball. 

I have lost my ball. 

In the first sentence " have " expresses a distinct 
idea of its own, namely, the idea of possession. < 

In the second sentence it has laid aside this mean- 
ing and merely helps to express the meaning of an- 
other verb, " lost." 

Definition. — A verb that merely helps to express 
the meaning of another verb is called an Auxiliary 
Verb. 

To the Teacher. — There is much divergence among grammarians 
in the treatment of can, let, may, must, ought, should, and would. 
These verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are always fol- 
lowed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore they are all often 
classed as auxiliaries. On the other hand, can, must, and ought 
always have meanings of their own; therefore many object to calling 
them auxiliaries. According to the latter view, which is adopted 
in this book, let, may, should, and would are sometimes notional, 
sometimes auxiliary (175-180). 

II. VOICE. 

142. Voice Denned. — We have seen that a transi- 
tive verb may represent the subject as doing the ac- 
tion expressed by the verb or as receiving it : as, 
" A man shot a deer ; " "A deer was shot by a man." 

Definition. — A difference in the form of a verb to 
show whether the subject acts or is acted upon is 
called Voice. 



168 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Definition. — The form of a verb that represents 
the subject as doing an action is called the Active 
Voice. 

Definition. — The form of a verb that represents 
the subject as receiving an action is called the Passive 
Voice. 

Sometimes the subject of a passive verb denotes the object pro- 
duced by the action: as, "The nest was built by a wren." 

143. Form of the Passive Voice. — Compare the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

{Active) Grocers sell butter. 
(Passive) Butter is sold by grocers. 

(Active) Congress made Dewey an admiral. 
(Passive) Dewey was made an admiral by Congress. 

(Active) The manager will give you a ticket. 
(Passive) A ticket will be given you by the manager; or (occa- 
sionally), You will be given a ticket by the manager. 

You observe that the passive voice of a verb is 
formed by using a form of the verb " be " as an 
auxiliary. 

You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed 
from the active to the passive form, the object of the 
active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. 

The subject of the active verb becomes an agent 
after the passive verb — a relation expressed by the 
preposition " by." 

An objective complement becomes an attribute 
complement (35.) 

An indirect object usually remains an indirect ob- 



OF VERBS 169 

ject. Sometimes, however, it is made the subject 
of the passive verb, the direct object then becoming 
a " retained object." x 

EXERCISE 138. 

1. Change the following sentences into the passive 
form : — 

1. Sculptors make statues. 2. The Puritans founded Harvard 
College. 3. Manners reveal character. 4. A sense of duty pursues 
us ever. 5. Gentle deeds make known a gentle mind. 6. Little 
strokes fell great oaks. 7. Public amusements keep people from 
vice. 8. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the 
historian, blind for life. 9. They found her lying in the snow frozen 
to death. 10. All believed him to be an honest man. 11. We 
dropped the subject, and have not referred to it since. 12. The sly 
agent imposed upon us both. 13. The wounded man's wife took 
care of him. 

2. Change the following sentences into the active 
form : — 

1. The corn has been badly damaged by the late storm. 2. Forty 
thousand persons were killed in 1883 by the eruption of the volcano 
of Krakatoa. 3. It will be said by the newspapers that congratula- 
tions are showered on you by your friends. 4. In 1453 Constanti- 
nople was captured by the Turks and made the capital of their 
empire. 

EXERCISE 139. 

Change the following sentences into the passive form, 
and tell the use of the italicized words in the new 
sentences : — 

1. He kept me waiting. 2. This made him angry. 3. God 

1 Though this illogical construction is supported by excellent au- 
thority, it is condemned by some grammarians, 



170 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

called the light day. 4. Harry gave me a penny. 5. She promised 
me a book. 6. I gave him a receipt in full. 7. They painted the 
house green. 8. You cannot pump the ocean dry. 9. Victoria 
made Tennyson a baron. 10. Perseverance keeps honor bright. 
11. Mother bought Alice a doll. 12. He paid the men their wages. 
13. A thunderstorm often turns milk sour. 14. He wrought the cas- 
tle much annoy. 15. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 
16. He told them many strange stories of the sea. 

EXERCISE 140. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following selection are 
in the active or the passive form : — 

Apples in Ancient Times. 

It appears that apples made a part of the food of that unknown 
primitive people whose traces have lately been found at the bottom 
of the Swiss lakes, supposed to be older than the foundation of Rome, 
so old that they had no metallic implements. An entire black and 
shriveled crab apple has been recovered from their stores. * * * 

The apple tree has been celebrated by the Hebrews, Greeks, 
Romans, and Scandinavians. Some have thought that the first 
human pair were tempted by its fruit. Goddesses are fabled to 
have contended for it, dragons were set to watch it, and heroes 
were employed to pluck it. — Thoreau : "The History of the Apple 
Tree." 

EXERCISE 141. 

1 . Tell whether the italicized words in the following 
sentences are attribute complements or parts of passive 
verb-phrases : — 

1. The melancholy days are come. 2. Our little life is rounded 
with a sleep. 3. The school bell is rung at nine o'clock. 4. The 
quality of mercy is not strained. 5. It is enthroned in the hearts 
pf kings, 6, The apples were picked yesterday. 7. The spectacle 



OF VERBS 171 

was well adapted to excite wonder. 8. Man is born unto trouble, 
as the sparks fly upward. 9. The lines are fallen unto me in pleasant 
places. 10. Rome was not built in a day. 11. I am not prepared 
to recite this morning. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 

1. Tell the voice of each verb in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Annie is studying her lesson. 2. Tom has been mending 
his kite. 3. The lion and the unicorn were fighting for the crown. 
4. The lawn is being watered by the gardener. 5. The stars are 
shining brightly. 6. The grammar class is taught by Miss H. 
7. By whom was this ink spilled? 8. Is it raining? 

III. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

144. Inflection for Number and Person. — In some 
languages the form of the verb changes with the 
number and person of the subject, and the verb is 
said to agree with its subject in number and person. 
In Old English such number and person forms were 
numerous ; and in the case of the verb " be " we 
still say : " I am ; " " Thou art ; " " He is ; " " We 
are;" "I was;" "You were" etc. Other verbs 
in modern English have lost ail their inflections for 
number and person, except in the second and third 
persons of the singular number, as follows : — 

First Person : I make. 
Second Person : Thou make.^. 
Third Person : He makes (make/A). 

The termination "-st" (subject "thou") is used only in Biblical 
and poetical language (99). 

The termination "-th" or "-eth," which was once used instead 



172 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

of "-s," survives only in Biblical language and in poetry: as, "He 
that maketh haste to be rich shall not be innocent;" "He prayeth 
well who loveth well." 

Therefore, except in the verb "be," the only inflection for num- 
ber and person in common use is "-s" in the third person singular. 

145. Construction of Number Forms. — Examine the 
verbs and their subjects in the following sentences : — 

A sense of duty pursues us ever. (Singular subject; singular 
verb.) 

Troubles never come singly. (Plural subject; plural verb.) 

Half oj them are gone. (Subject singular in form but plural 
in sense; plural verb.) 

"Gulliver's Travels" was written by Swift. (Subject plural in 
form but singular in sense; singular verb.) 

Tom and his sister were there. (Two singular subjects together 
forming a plural; plural verb.) 

Bread and butter is good enough for me. (Two singular sub- 
jects taken together as one thing; singular verb.) 

Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular subjects 
considered separately; singular verb.) 

You observe that, in general, a singular form of 
the verb is used when the subject is singular or re- 
garded as singular ; a plural form, when the subject 
is plural or regarded as plural. 

The principle that a verb agrees with its subject 
in number is in most cases followed unconsciously. 
A few constructions, however, require special 
notice : — 

i. The pronoun "you" takes a plural verb even when the mean- 
ing is singular: as, "Tom, you were late." 

2. A collective noun in the singular number takes a singular 



OF VERBS 



'73 



verb when the collection is viewed as a whole; a plural verb when 
the members of the collection are thought of as individuals: as, 
"The committee was discharged." (Here the committee is thought 
of as a body.) "The committee were eating dinner." (The com- 
mittee ate, not as a body, but as separate individuals.) 

3. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural sense from the 
presence of two or more distinguishing adjectives: as, "Mental, 
moral, and physical education here go hand in hand." 

4. When subjects connected by "or" or "nor" are of different 
numbers, the verb usually agrees with the nearest: as, "One or 
two were there." 

Caution. — When one or more plural words come between a 
singular subject and its verb, a writer is in danger of forgetting the 
real subject and of giving to the verb the number of the nearest 
substantive. The following sentences are correct: "The formation 
of paragraphs is very important." (Here the subject is "forma- 
tion." ) "Every one of us has had this feeling." (Here the subject 
is "Every one.") 

Words joined to a singular subject by "with," "together with," 
"in addition to," or "as well as," are not on the same grammatical 
level as the subject, but are parenthetical, and therefore do not 
affect the number of the verb : as, " Justice, as well as mercy, allows it." 

EXERCISE 142. 

Construct sentences illustrating each of the special 
cases of agreement mentioned in Section 145. 

EXERCISE 143. 

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of the 
verb "be," and give the reason for your choice : — 

1. I know you there. 

2. One of you mistaken. 

3. One or two ready now, 

4. Two years a long time. 



i 7 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

5. Books a common noun. 

6. Five years' interest due. 

7. A hundred yards not far. 

8. There many things to do. 

9. Bread and milk good diet. 

10. The public ■ cordially invited. 

11. Each of the sisters -beautiful. 

12. Neither of the girls very much at ease. 

13. A number of the boys waiting outside. 

14. Manual and physical training necessary. 

15. Either the master or his servants to blame. 

16. Two thousand dollars a year a good salary. 

17. Fluency and eloquence two different things. 

18. Neither the servants nor their master to blame. 

19. Neither the painter nor his picture very famous. 

20. She has one of the prettiest faces that ever seen. 

21. "Tales of a Traveler" published by Irving in 1824. 

22. General Custer, with all his men, massacred by Indians. 

146. " Don't." — " Don't," which is a contraction 
of " do not," and which is proper enough in its 
place, should not be misused for " doesn't " when 
the subject is in the third person singular. The 
following sentences are correct : " Why doesn't she 
come ? " " Why don't you speak ? " 

EXERCISE 144. 

Insert the proper contraction (don't, doesn't) in each 
blank, and give the reason for your choice : — 

1. Why he write ? 

2. It seem possible. 

3. She like croquet. 

4. I know what it is to be afraid. 

5. The captain says he know what it is to be afraid. 



OF VERBS 175 

147. Construction of Person Forms. — A practical 
difficulty in using correctly the personal forms of 
verbs arises when the subject consists of two or more 
substantives of different persons connected by either 
— or, or neither — nor. Shall we say, for example, 
" Either he or I is mistaken," or " Either he or I 
am mistaken ? " If driven to a choice, we usually, 
but by no means always, let the verb agree with the 
nearest subject ; or, we give the preference to the 
first person over the second or third. But it is far 
better to avoid such difficulties (1) by using some 
verb that has the same form for all persons : as, 
" Either he or I must be mistaken ; " or (2) by re- 
arranging the sentence : as, " Either you are mis- 
taken, or I am;" " One of us is mistaken," etc. 

Occasionally mistakes in person are made in rela- 
tive clauses, the speaker forgetting that the verb 
should have the same person as the antecedent of 
the relative pronoun (116). 

IV. TENSE. 

148. Tense Defined. — Compare the verbs in the 
following sentences : — 

I see the Brooklyn Bridge. 
I saw the Brooklyn Bridge. 
I shall see the Brooklyn Bridge. 

Here we have three different forms of the same 
verb, denoting the same action, but referring it to 



176 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

different times — the present, the past, and the 
future. 

Definitions. — A difference in the form of a verb 
to denote time is called Tense (Old French, 
" time"). 

A verb that refers to present time is in the 
Present Tense. 

A verb that refers to past time is in the Past 
Tense. 

A verb that refers to future time is in the Future 
Tense. 

149. Simple Tenses. — The English verb has only 
two simple tense forms : the Present Tense, which is 
the same as the root-form of the verb : as, " I 
write" " I hope ; and the Past Tense, which is formed 
from the present by an internal vowel change or by 
adding "ed" "d" or <c t" as, " I wrote" u \ hoped." 
To denote future action the present tense was at first 
employed, as it still is occasionally : as, " We begin 
practice to-morrow." 

150. Phrasal Tenses. — In course of time the two 
simple tenses were found insufficient ; and to denote 
further distinctions of time, verb-phrases were em- 
ployed, formed by means of auxiliary verbs. 

151. Phrasal Tenses: Future. — To form a Future 
Tense we use " shall " or " will " as an auxiliary : as, 
" I shall write to him ; " " He will write to me." 



OF VERBS 177 

The distinction between shall and will as future auxiliaries is 
given in 158. 

EXERCISE 145. 

Construct sentences containing the present, past, and 
future tenses of '" fight " and " stand." 

152. Phrasal Tenses: Perfect. — To represent an ac- 
tion as ended or complete at a given time we use the 
present, past, or future of " have " as an auxiliary : as, 
" There, I have written my exercise ; " " Yesterday, 
when the clock struck nine, I had written two 
pages ; " " To-morrow, by dinner time, I shall have 
written all my letters." Since these phrasal tenses 
denote action or state as completed or perfect in 
present, past, or future time, they are called the 
Perfect Tenses. 

The Present Perfect Tense denotes action com- 
pleted at the time of speaking. 

The Past Perfect Tense denotes action completed 
at some point in past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense denotes action that will 
be completed at some point in future time. 

EXERCISE 146. 

Construct sentences containing the perfect tenses of 
"fight" and " stand." 

153. Phrasal Tenses: Progressive. — Compare the 
verbs in the following sentences : — 

I write my letters carefully. 

I am writing my letters carefully. 



178 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Both of these sentences refer to present time, but 
with a difference. In the first sentence the simple 
present " write " does not necessarily mean that the 
writing is going on at the present moment ; it merely 
asserts a present custom. In order to represent an 
action as going on or progressing, we use the form 
in the second sentence. Since such phrasal tenses 
denote action as progressing in present, past, or fu- 
ture time, they are called Progressive Tenses. 

The Present Progressive Tense represents an action 
as going on at the time of speaking. 

The Past Progressive Tense represents an action as 
going on at some point in past time. 

The Future Progressive Tense represents an action 
as going on at some point in future time. 

Now compare the verbs in the following sen- 
tences. 

I have written my letters. 

I have been writing my letters. 

In the sentence " I have written my letters" the 
verb "have written" merely represents the action 
as completed. If we wish to add to the idea of com- 
pletion the idea of previous duration or progress, we 
say, " I have been writing a composition ; " " Yester- 
day evening my hand was cramped, for I had been 
writing all day;" "When the clock strikes ten I 
shall have been writing twenty minutes." Since 
these phrasal tenses denote action as completed in 
present, past, or future time, after continuance or 



OF VERBS 179 

progression, they are called respectively the Present 
Perfect Progressive Tense, the Past Perfect Progressive 
Tense, and the Future Perfect Progressive Tense. 
EXERCISE 147. 

Construct sentences illustrating each of the six pro- 
gressive tenses of ''''fight " and " stand." 

154. Phrasal Tenses: Emphatic, Interrogative, and 
Negative. — In the sentences " I write my letters care- 
fully " and "I wrote to her yesterday," "write" 
and "wrote " merely assert action. If we wish to 
make the same assertions emphatically, in the face 
of doubt or denial, we substitute for the simple 
tenses certain phrasal tenses formed by putting the 
present or the past of " do " before the principal 
verb : as, " I do write my letters carefully ; " "I did 
write to her yesterday." These phrasal tenses are 
appropriately called the Present Emphatic Tense and 
the Past Emphatic Tense. Other tenses are made 
emphatic by laying emphasis on the auxiliary that 
is already present : " I have written my letters." 

In Negative and Interrogative sentences the same phrasal 
tenses formed with "do" and "did" are substituted for the simple 
present and past tenses, without the effect of emphasis: as, "Do 
you write to her often?" "Did you write to her to-day?" "You do 
not write well;" "You did not write carefully." 

EXERCISE 148. 

Construct sentences illustrating the present and past 
emphatic, negative, and interrogative tense forms — six 
kinds in all. 



180 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

155. Summary of Tense Forms. — Gathering together 
the different tense forms described in the preceding 
sections, we may tabulate the tenses of the English 
verb as follows : — 

Ordinary Emphatic, etc. Progressive 
Pres. write do write am writing 

Past wrote did write was writing 

Fut. will write will be writing 

Pres. Per}. have written have been writing 

Past Perf. had written had been writing 

Fut. Per}, will have written will have been writing 

Note. — Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ a 
sort of future tense phrase formed by combining the progressive 
tenses of "go" with the principal verb: as, "I am going to write a 
composition;" "I have been going to write to him for a week." It 
is best to resolve such phrases into their parts, rather than to classify 
them as parts of the tense system. The same is true of such phrases 
as "I used to write" and "I am about to write." 

EXERCISE 149. 

Give the tense of each verb in Exercises 19, and 
3 1 - 

To the Teacher. — A complete discussion of the uses of English 
tenses is impossible here, nor would it be desirable; for the tenses 
and their uses are, for the most part, learned unconsciously from 
conversation and reading. The following discussion is limited to 
the few instances in which experience shows that special comment 
is helpful. 

156. Uses of the Simple Present. — The simple pres- 
ent tense has the following uses : — 

1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that includes 



OF VERBS 181 

the present: as, "He goes to town every Saturday;" "Two and 
two make four." 

2. As an occasional substitute for the present progressive, to 
denote action going on at the present moment: as, "I see a robin;" 
"I hear the bell." 

3. As an occasional substitute for the future: as, "We sail for 
Europe next Saturday." 

4. In vivid narrative as a substitute for the past: as, "At this 
news Caesar hurries to Gaul." This is called the Historical Present. 

157. Uses of the Present Perfect. — The present 
perfect tense, which ordinarily represents something 
as- completed at the time of speaking, is also used, in- 
stead of a past tense, to represent a past action (1) as 
continuing to the present, at least in its consequences, 
or (2) as belonging to a period of time not yet 
ended : as, 

(1) "I have lost my book" (so that now I am without it). 

(1) "We have lived here five years" (we live here now). 

(2) "I have seen him three times to-day." 

(2) "We have had a great deal of rain this year." 

The use of a past tense in any of these sentences 
would cut away the action from all connection with 
present time : as, 

"I lost my book" (it may have since been found). 
"We lived here five years" (we have moved away). 
"I saw him three times yesterday." 
"We had a great deal of rain last year." 

EXERCISE 150. 

Distinguish between : — 
He studies (is studying) now. 



i82 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

I came (have come) to see you. 

I read (am reading) Thackeray. 

She always goes (is going) to church. 

He lived (has lived) here a good many years. 

We expected (were expecting) you yesterday. 

You did not tie (have not tied) it fast enough. 

I have written (have been writing) letters all day. 

What have you done (have you been doing) to-day? 

I have received (have been receiving) letters from him. 

I shall travel (shall be traveling) in Europe next summer. 

I wrote (had written, was writing) my letter when he came. 

EXERCISE 151. 

Tell which of the italicized forms is preferable, and 
give the reason for your answer : — 

i. I was (have been) here yesterday. 

2. Shakespeare says (said) that love is blind. 

3. I knew (have known) him since he was a child. 

4. How far did you say it is (was) from here to Chicago? 

5. The earth is a ball that always turns (is turning) round. 

6. When we saw (had seen) everything in Geneva we went on 
to Paris. 

7. As soon as the ships were within range the Admiral opens 
(opened) fire. 

8. By this time to-morrow I shall pass (shall have passed) my 
examinations. 

9. I shall finish (shall have finished) my letter by the time 
you come back. 

10. Mr. Williams regrets that a previous engagement prevents 
(will prevent) him from accepting Miss Smith's kind invitation for 
Monday evening. 



OF VERBS 183 

158. Shall or Will. — There is an important dis- 
tinction between the auxiliaries used in forming the 
future tenses. At first " shall " and " will " were 
separate verbs, " shall " meaning " to be obliged," 
and " will " meaning " to wish." At present they 
often retain some trace of their original meanings, 
"will " implying a reference to the will of the sub- 
ject, and " shall " implying obligation or compul- 
sion : as, " I will never forsake you ; " "He shall 
be brought to justice." Just as often, however, 
" shall " and " will " are mere auxiliaries, with no 
trace of their original meaning : as, " The bell will 
soon ring, and I shall be late." 

Modern usage may be exhibited as follows : — 

Future, with added 
Simple Future. idea of determination. 

I (we) shall I (we) will 

You will 1 You shall 2 

He (they) will He (they) shall 2 

In clauses introduced by the conjunction " that" 
expressed or understood, the same auxiliary is used 
that would be used if the clause were an independ- 
ent sentence : as, " I fear that we shall miss the 
train." (Independent: " We shall miss the train.") 

Such clauses are common after say, declare, think, believe, hope, 
{ear, and words of similar meaning. 

In all other subordinate clauses " shall " in all per- 

1 Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer. 

2 Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place. 



184 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

sons denotes simple futurity ; " will " in all persons 
implies an exercise of will : as, " When He shall 
appear (simple futurity) we shall be like Him ; " 
" If you will come (i. e., are willing to come), we 
will give you a good time." 

In questions , " shall " is the proper auxiliary in the 
first person ; in the second and third persons the 
same auxiliary is used that is expected in the answer: 
as, " Shall we go to-morrow ? " " Will you go ? " 
{Answer : " I will go.") " Shall you be glad when 
to-morrow comes?" (Answer: " I shall be glad.") 

"Should" and "would" are the past tenses of 
" shall " and "will," and in general follow the same 
rules. See, however, 177 and 178. 



EXERCISE 152. 

Distinguish between : — 

i. He will (shall) not go. 

2. Shall (will) you be there? 

3. I shall (will) not hear you. 

4. She will (shall) not see me. 

5. He thought I would (should) go. 

6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow. 

7. What shall (will) the admission be? 

8. If he would (should) help, we could do it. 

9. You will (shall) know my answer to-morrow. 

10. If she disobeyed, she would (should) be punished. 

11. Do you think I would (should) go under the circumstances? 



OF VERBS 185 

EXERCISE 153. 

Insert the proper auxiliary ("shall" "will") in 
each blank in the following sentences : — 

1. we go to-morrow? 

2. We have rain soon. 

3. I — — ■ be glad to see you. 

4. you be able to come ? 

5. we ask her to come too? 

6. I be twelve in December. 

7. How I send the package? 

8. If I do not hurry, I be late. 

9. I hope you be able to come. 

10. I bring a chair for the lady? 

n. He thinks we soon have rain. 

12. I am afraid we miss the train. 

13. She says she be glad to see us. 

14. We never forget this kindness. 

15. we have time to get our tickets? 

16. We be pleased to have you call. 

17. I hope we not be so late as that. 

18. He fears we have to ask her too. 

19. I fear that I not be able to come. 

20. He thinks he not be able to come. 

21. John thinks he be sick to-morrow. 

22. He asks how he send the package. 

23. John thinks James be sick to-morrow. 

24. She wonders whether we go to-morrow. 

25. It is probable that I be away at that time. 

26. you meet me at the corner in five minutes? 

27. They declare they never ■ forget this kindness. 

28. we have another chance at this examination? 



186 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

EXERCISE 154. 

Insert the proper auxiliary (" would" " should") in 
each blank in the following sentences : — 

i. He thought I be hurt. 

2. We be sorry to be late. 

3. He thought he be hurt. 

4. He thought she be hurt. 

5. He thought you be hurt. 

6. I like to see a yacht race. 

7. What we do without cooks ? 

8. At first I didn't think I like Latin. 

9. If I tried to walk a tight-rope, I fall. 

10. I asked him whether he come again. 

11. I think they have known better. 

159. Misused Forms. — The past tense and the past 
participle 1 of the verbs in the following list are often 
confounded or incorrectly formed : — 



Present. 

begin 

blow 

break 

burst 

come 

dive 

do 

drive 

eat 

fly 

flow 

1 See Section 173. 



Past. 


Past Participle. 


began 


begun 


blew 


blown 


broke 


broken 


burst 


burst 


came 


come 


dived 


dived 


did 


done 


drove 


driven 


ate 


eaten 


flew 


flown 


flowed 


flowed 









OF 


VERBS 




Present. 








Past. 


Past Participle 


freeze 








froze 


frozen 


forgot 








forgot 


forgotten 


get 








got 


got 


go 








went 


gone 


lay ("to 


cause 


to lie") 




laid 


laid 


lie ("to recline 


") 




lay 


lain 


prove 








proved 


proved 


ride 








rode 


ridden 


rise 








rose 


risen 


raise (" 


to cause to rise 


") 


raised 


raised 


run 








ran 


run 


see 








saw 


seen 


set ("to 


put;" 


of the sun, 


set 


set 


moon, etc 


., "to sink") 






sit 








sat 


sat 


shake 








shook 


shaken 


show- 








showed 


shown 


speak 








spoke 


spoken 


slay- 








■ slew 


slain 


steal 








stole 


stolen 


take 








took 


taken 


throw- 








threw 


thrown 


wake 








woke 


waked 


write 








wrote 


written 



187 



In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim* 
it is better to confine the forms in "a" to the past tense, and the 
forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The bell rang five minutes 
ago;" "Yes, the bell has rung" 

EXERCISE 155. 

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the 
past tense : — 

1. I do it myself. 

2. Tom swims very well. 



1 88 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. Harry sees me coming. 

4. The sun wakes me early. 

5. The wind blows furiously. 

6. The guests begin to go home. 

7. They sit in the third pew from the front. 

8. The Susquehanna River overflows its banks. 

9. Helen comes in and lays her coat on a chair. 
10. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball, 
n. The wild goose flies southward in the autumn. 

12. They eat their supper as if they were half starved. 

13. The Negro women set their baskets on*their heads. 

14. George dives better than any other boy in the crowd. 

15. The catcher often throws the ball to the second base. 

16. The savages who live on this island slay their captives. 

17. The workmen lay the rails for the track with great care. 

18. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies down an hour 
every day. 

EXERCISE 156. 

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the 
perfect tense : — 

1. He writes home. 

2. I forget his name. 

3. The sleeper awakes. 

4. He stole my watch. 

5. Ethel broke her arm. 

6. They go by steamer. 

7. Some one takes my hat. 

8. I see the President often. 

9. He gets along fairly well. 
10. They slay their prisoners. 



OF VERBS 189 

11. The enemy come in force. 

12. The boys dive three times. 

13. I set the lamp on the table. 

14. A mist rises before my eyes. 

15. The water in my pitcher froze. 

16. He speaks his declamation well. 

17. The boys are eating their supper. 

18. He throws cold water on my plan. 

19. The Ohio River overflows its banks. 

20. He sits by the hour talking politics. 

21. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 

22. This proves the truth of my assertion. 

23. The wind blows my papers off the table. 

24. A robin flies to the vines by my window. 

25. John is driving the cows out of the corn. 

26. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 

27. This fact clearly shows the prisoner's guilt. 

28. He wakes me every night by his restlessness. 

29. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury. 

30. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 

V. MODE. 1 

160. Mode Defined. — Compare the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

He is here. 

Would he were here. 

Be here at daylight. 

In these sentences we have three different forms 

1 To the Teacher, — In recognizing only three modes the author has 
followed the best modern philologists. The forms often called " poten- 
tial " fall easily within either the indicative or the subjunctive. 



190 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

of the verb " be," indicating different ways in which 
the thought is presented to the mind. " Is " shows 
that it is presented as a fact ; " were " shows that 
it is presented as a mere thought (he is not here) ; 
" be" shows that it is presented as a command. 

Definition. — A difference in the form of a verb to 
show how the thought is presented to the mind is 
called Mode. 

Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
thought as a fact is called the Indicative Mode. 

Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
thought as a mere thought, uncertain or contrary 
to fact, is called the Subjunctive Mode. 

Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
thought as a command or entreaty is called the 
Imperative Mode. 

161. The Indicative Mode. — The indicative mode is 
the most common, being used in expressing a fact, 
or what is assumed to be a fact, and in asking ques- 
tions of fact. 

Caution. — The indicative is often used in sentences that express 
what is uncertain or contrary to fact; but in such cases the uncer- 
tainty or untruth is expressed, not by the form of the verb, but by 
some other word; as, "Perhaps it will rain;" "He is not here." The 
subjunctive, on the other hand, often expresses uncertainty or untruth 
by its own form without the help of other words: as, "Were he here, 
he would go with us." 

162. The Subjunctive Mode: Form. — In form the 
subjunctive differs from the indicative in the follow- 
ing ways : — 



OF VERBS 



191 



I. In the single case of the verb " be" the sub- 
junctive has distinct forms for the present and past 
tenses, namely : — 



, Present. > 


r- Past. > 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


lam 


I be 


I was 


I were 


Thou art 


Thou be 


Thou wast 


Thou wert 


He is 


lie be 


He was 


He were 


We are 


We be 


We were 


We were 


You are 


Yon be 


You were 


You were 


They are 


They be 


They were 


They were 



Examples of the Subjunctive of "Be." — "Judge not, that ye 
be not judged;" "Hallowed be Thy name;" "If I were you, I would 
not say that;" "Would that Alice were here!" 

1. In other verbs the subjunctive has the same 
form as the indicative, except that in the second and 
third persons singular there are no personal end- 
ings : as, 



-Present. 



-Past. 



Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I write I write 

Thou writest Thou write 
He writes He write 



Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I wrote I wrote 

Thou wrotest Thou wrote 

He wrote He wrote 



Examples of the Subjunctive of Other Verbs than "Be." — 
"It is better he die;" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise 
thee;" "Long live the King!" "If thy hand offend thee, cut it off." 

3. Sometimes the subjunctive is phrasal, being 
formed by means of the auxiliaries " may " (past, 
" might"), "had," "would," and " should." 

Examples of the Phrasal Subjunctive. — "Bring me a light, 
that I may see what this is;" "I hope you may succeed;" "May you 



192 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

live long and happily;" "We were afraid we might miss the train;" 
"It is better he should die;" "Let us start early, lest we should be 
late;" "It would be better if we should start now;" "If my sister fmd 
seen that mouse, she would have screamed." 

Caution. — It does not follow that the verbs "may," "would," 
"should," and "had" are always subjunctive. In the following 
sentences, for example, they make simple statements of fact,, and 
are therefore indicative: "You may (i. e., are permitted to) go 
now;" "You should (i. e., ought to) start earlier;" "Annie would 
not (i. e., was unwilling to) sing." 

163. The Subjunctive Mode : Uses. — The subjunc- 
tive mode expresses action, being, or state, not as a 
fact, but as something merely conceived of in the 
mind. It is the thought-mode as distinguished from 
the fact-mode, and indicates some uncertainty or 
disbelief in the speaker's mind. It is most fre- 
quently used to express — 

i. A wish: as, "God forbid!" "O, that I were a man." 

2. A purpose: as, "Judge not, that ye be not judged; " "Bring 
me a light, that I may see what this is." 

3. A possibility: as, "We were afraid we might miss the train;" 
" Strike ere it be too late." 

4. A supposition regarded as untrue or unlikely: as, "If I were 
you, I would go." 

5. A conclusion regarded as untrue or unlikely : as, "If I were 
you I would go;" "If my sister had seen that mouse, she would have 
screamed." 

The subjunctive is much less used than it was 
formerly ; but it is still common in the writings of 
authors who are artistic and exact in expression. 1 

1 " Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mode is as good 
as lost, that it is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its 



OF VERBS 193 

164. The Subjunctive Mode : Tenses. — The use of 
the tenses of the subjunctive is peculiar, the time 
referred to not always corresponding to the name 
of the tense. Frequently the present subjunctive 
refers to future time, and the past subjunctive to 
present time : as, " Strike ere it be too late ; " " O, 
that I were a man." 

165. The Imperative Mode. — The imperative mode 
expresses commands, entreaties, or advice addressed 
to the person spoken to. It is used only in the 
second person ; and it has the same form for both 
singular and plural, namely, the root-form of the 
verb: as, "Be just, and fear not;" "Have mercy 
on us." It is usually distinguished from the present 
indicative by the omission of the subject. 

Caution. — Commands or entreaties addressed to the person 
spoken to must not be confounded with wishes concerning a per- 
son or thing spoken of: as, "Long live the Queen!" "Thy king- 
dom come." In these sentences the verbs are in the subjunctive 
(163). 

EXERCISE 157. 
Tell the mode of each verb in the following sentences ■, 
and give the reason for your opinion : — 

1. God forbid. 

2. Love me, love my dog. 

function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved. 
If we lose the subjunctive verb, it will certainly be a grievous impover- 
ishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving 
variation to diction — and I make bold to assert that the writer who 
helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude." — John Earle: " English 
Prose, Its Elements, History, and Usage," p. 172. 



i 9 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. I could cry my eyes out. 

4. Thy money perish with thee. 

5. The law is good if a man use it lawfully. 

6. He serves his party best who serves the country best. 

7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost. 

8. Take heed that ye do not your alms before men, to be seen 
of them. 

9. If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with 
all men. 

10. Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what 
a day may bring forth. 

11. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, 
neither do they spin. 

12. God sifted a whole nation that he might send choice grain 
over into this wilderness. 

13. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about 
his neck, and he cast into the sea. 

14. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a 
foreign troop was landed in my country I never would lay down 
my arms, — never! never! never! 

15. Come what come may, 

Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. 
16. Shall I, wasting in despair, 

Die because a woman's fair? 
Or make pale my cheeks with care, 

'Cause another's rosy are? 
Be she fairer than the day, 
Or the flowery meads in May, 
If she be not so to me, 
What care I how fair she be? 

166. Verbals. — There are two important kinds of 
words that are intermediate between verbs on the 
one hand, and nouns and adjectives on the other. 



OF VERBS 195 

They are formed from verbs and retain some of the 
characteristics of verbs, with which they are usually 
classed ; but they differ from verbs in being used, 
not as predicates of sentences, but as nouns or ad- 
jectives. They are called Verbals, and they are of 
two kinds : noun-verbals, called Infinitives ; and 
adjective-verbals, called Participles. 

V. INFINITIVES. 

167. Infinitives Defined. — Examine the italicized 

words in the following sentence : — 

To climb | , .„ . , 

_, . , . > steep hills requires a slow pace. 

Climbing] 

Here "To climb" and "Climbing" are formed 
from the verb " climb," and are followed by a di- 
rect object, "hills;" therefore they partake of the 
nature of verbs. They are used, however, not to 
assert an action, but to name it ; therefore they par- 
take also of the nature of nouns. 

Definition. — A word that partakes of the nature of 
both verb and noun is called an Infinitive. 

The distinguishing marks of an infinitive are 
these: (1) it is derived from a verb ; (2) it takes, 
or may take, the same complements and modifiers 
as the verb from which it is derived ; (3) it is used 
as a noun. 

The name "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers to the 
fact that the action, being, or state expressed by an infinitive is 
usually not limited to a particular subject or time: as, "To climb 
steep hills requires strength and endurance." 



196 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms of the verb, 
which take the person and number of their subject, are often called 
Finite ("limited") verbs. 

168. Form of Infinitives. — With regard to form, 
infinitives are of two principal kinds : — 

i. The Root-Infinitive, which always has the same 
form as the root or simple form of the verb : as, 
" Better wear out than rust out ; " " You need not 
wait." It is often preceded by "to:" as, " It is 
better to wear out than to rust out ; " "I prefer to 
wait." 

1. The Infinitive in -ing, formed from the root of 
the verb by adding " -ing : " as, " She understands 
boiling an egg better than anybody else." 

169. " To " before the Root-Infinitive. — Originally 
" to " before the root-infinitive denoted purpose, 
and always had the force of a preposition, as it still 
has in many expressions : as, " Boats to let " (i. e., 
"for letting ") ; " He came to see us " (i. e., " for 
seeing"); "We grieve to hear it" (i. e., " at hear- 
ing ") ; " He is ashamed to beg " (i. e., " of beg- 
ging "). In these sentences " to let," " to see," " to 
hear," and " to beg " are really adjective or adverbial 
phrases^ in which root-infinitives are used as objects 
of the preposition " to." 

In many other modern expressions "to" before the root-infinitive 
has no other value than to mark the following word as an infinitive: 
as, "To bear our fate is to conquer it." Here "to" resembles an 
inflection, and is called the Sign of the Infinitive. 



OF VERBS 197 

The root -infinitive without "to" is used after auxiliary verbs, 
and in many other cases that are learned by observation. Examples 
are: "I will go;" "You dare not do it;" "She heard him cry;" "He 
had better start now." 

EXERCISE 157. 

Point out the infinitives in the following sentences 
and tell how they are used : — 

1. He intends to study. 2. Eating fast injures the health. 
3. They wish to start. 4. To find fault is easy. 5. This dog liked 
to be, petted. 6. They were sorry to go away. 7. His business is 
selling papers. 8. It is good to be here. 9. The attempts of 
madmen to assassinate Queen Victoria were always thwarted. 
10. Industry tends to make men happy. 11. To bear our fate is 
to conquer it. 12. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions 
of hope. 13. Flying kites is good sport. 

170. Tenses of the Infinitive. — With the infinitives 
of " be " and " have "■ as auxiliaries we form certain 
Phrasal Infinitives, corresponding to some tense forms 
of the indicative, active and passive : as. 

Active. 

Present Progressive : "I expect to be writing letters." 
Perfect: "I am sorry to have written so poorly." 

"He was reproved for having written it." 
Perfect Progressive : "I ought to have been writing my exercise." 

"His arm was cramped from his having been 
-writing all morning." 

Passive. 

Present: "The exercise must be written." 

"She disliked being called l proud." 

Perfect: "The exercise ought to have been written" 

"She is angry at having been called 1 proud." 

'Passive infinitives in "-ing" are rare, occurring only with certain 
verbs. 



198 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

A Present Infinite denotes action which is incom- 
plete at the time expressed by the principal verb : 
as, " He tries to write ; " " He tried to write ; " 
"He will try to write." 

A Perfect Infinitive is properly used to denote ac- 
tion which is completed at the time expressed by the 
principal verb : as, " Alfred is said to have drawn up 
a body of laws ; " "I felt glad to have seen Niagara 
Falls ; " "I shall be glad to have finished my task." 

Exception. — "Ought," "must," and "should" (in the sense of 
"ought") have no distinctive form to denote past time; and with 
these verbs distinctions of time are denoted by changes in the form 
of the following infinitive, the present forms denoting present time, 
and the perfect forms past time: as, "You ought to go" "You ought 
to have gone;" "He should be careful," "He should have been care- 
ful." A similar use of the infinitive forms to denote time is found 
after "could" and "might" in some of their uses: as, "I could go,"' 
"I could have gone;" "You might answer," "You might have 
answered." 

EXERCISE 158. 

Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give 
the reason : — 

i. Lee intended to attack {to have attacked) at daybreak. 

2. We meant to start {to have started) long ago. 

3. It was his business to prevent {to have prevented) such an 
accident. 

4. He is said to lose {to have lost) ten dollars. 

5. It would have been better to wait {to have waited). 

6. He could not jail {have jailed) to arouse {to have aroused) 
suspicion. 



OF VERBS 199 

171. Constructions of the Infinitive. — The infinitive, 
is common in the following constructions : — 

1. Subject of a Verb: as, "To find fault is easy;" "Being able 
to play the piano is not knowing music." 

2. Attribute Complement: as, "Her greatest pleasure is to raise 
flowers;" "His chief difficulty is learning to spell." 

3. Object Complement: as, "He likes to read history;" "I hate 
traveling alone." 

Here belong, historically, infinitives used after "ought," "must," 
"dare," "need," "can," and in verb-phrases after auxiliaries. 

4. Object of a Preposition: as, "He had no choice but (i. e., 
except) to obey. 

5. Infinitive Phrases that have the force of adjectives or adverbs : 
as, "Boats to let;" "He came to see me." 

6. With a Subject in the Objective Case, after Verbs of Telling, 
Thinking, Perceiving, and Knowing: as, "I saw him go;" "We 
heard her cry." 

EXERCISE 159. 

Construct sentences illustrating the uses of the root- 
infinitive ; of the infinitive in " -ing" 

VI. PARTICIPLES. 

172. Participles Defined. — Examine the italicized 
words in the following sentences : — 

The girl intently reading a book is my cousin. 

The plant commonly called Nightshade is poisonous. 

In the first sentence "reading," formed from the 
verb " read," has an object, " book ; " therefore it 
partakes of the nature of a verb, But it is attached 



aoo THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

to the noun "girl" by way of description, and 
therefore it partakes also of the nature of an adjective. 

In the second sentence " called," formed from the 
verb " call," has an attribute complement, " Night- 
shade ; " therefore it partakes of the nature of a verb. 
But it is attached to the noun " plant " by way of 
description, and therefore it also partakes of the na- 
ture of an adjective. 

Definition. — A word that partakes of the nature of 
both verb and adjective is called a Participle. 

The distinguishing marks of a participle are these : 
(i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or may 
take, the same complements and modifiers as the 
verb from which it is derived ; (3) it is used as an 
adjective. 

173. Form of the Participles. — With regard to form, 
participles are of two principal kinds : — 

1 . The Present Participle, formed from the root of 
the verb by adding " -ing : " as, " The girl reading a 
book is my cousin." 

The present participle describes an action as going 
on at some particular time. 

1. The Past Participle, usually formed from the 
root of the verb by adding "-ed," "-d," "-t," " -en," 
or "-n : " as, " The plant called Nightshade is poison- 
ous ; " " The book taken from my desk has been 
returned." 



OF VERBS 



The past participle describes an action as past or 
completed at some particular time. 

With the participles of" be " and "have "as auxil- 
iaries we form certain Phrasal Participles: as, 



Perfect : 


"Having written my letters, I went to bed." 


Perfect Progressive : 


"Having been writing all day, I am tired." 




Passive. 


Present : 


Being written in ink, the name was hard 




to erase. 


Perfect : 


Having been written hastily, the letter con- 




tained many mistakes. 



The participles may be tabulated as follows : — 

Active. 

Present : writing. Perfect : having written. 

Past : written. Perfect Progressive : having been writing. 

Passive. 

Present: being written. Past: written. Perfect: having been 

written. 



EXERCISE 160 

Point out the participles in the following sentences 
and tell how they are used : — 

i. I caught the cat killing a robin. 2. The melted snow made 
the roads muddy. 3. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 4. Feeling 
tired, she sat down to rest. 5. A dog, stretched on his paws and 
gnawing a bone, looked up at her. 6. She sat still, watching him. 
7. Rested at length, she continued her walk. 8. Soon she met a 
boy carrying a basket. 9. Stopping him, she asked the way to the 
station. 10. Arrived at the station, she was annoyed by the way 
the cabmen came crowding around. 



202 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

174. Constructions of Participles. — Participles have 
all the ordinary uses of adjectives, and the following 
special uses in addition : — 

i. Loosely attached to the Subject of a Sentence, to express some 
attendant action or condition: as, "Hearing a noise in the street, 
I sprang to the window;" "Morn, waked by the circling hours, 
unbarred the gates of light." 

2. Attached to a Nominative Independent: as, "Night coming 
on, we lighted a fire." 

3. With Auxiliaries in Verb-Phrases: as, "Mother is looking 
for you;" "He has written a letter." 

175. Caution. — Not all words ending in " -ing " are 
infinitives or participles. Examine, for instance, 
the italicized words in the following sentences : — 

(1) The child slept during all the noise. 

(2) Nothing daunted, he began again. 

(3) There is something in the wind. 

(4) This constant climbing of steep hills takes my breath. 

(5) Spelling is harder for some persons than for others. 

In (1) the word ending in " -ing " is a preposi- 
tion. In (2) it has the force of an adverb, modifying 
the participle " daunted." In (3) it is a noun de- 
rived, not from a verb, but from the vague noun 
"thing." In (4) it is a noun derived from a verb, 
and so far it resembles an infinitive ; but it differs 
from an infinitive in having completely lost its ver- 
bal characteristics, for it is modified by adjectives in- 
stead of by adverbs, and instead of taking a direct 
object like the verb from which it came, it is fol- 
lowed by a prepositional phrase. In (5) it is im- 



OF VERBS 



203 



possible to tell whether the word ending in " -ing " 
should be classed as an infinitive or as a pure noun, 
for it has no modifiers to guide us. Nor is the ques- 
tion important. When modifiers or objects are pres- 
ent the classification is easy : thus, 

Good spelling is easier for some than for others. (Pure noun, 
because modified by an adjective, "good.") 

Spelling long words is easier for some than for others. (Infini- 
tive, because accompanied by an object, "words.") 

EXERCISE 161. 

Classify the italicized words in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. I have a feeling that you may be right. 

2. I found her reading "Idyls of the King." 

3. Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work. 

4. According to my watch, it is just ten o'clock. 

5. His mother is opposed to his playing football. 

6. Feeling sure that he would come, I waited longer. 

7. He was elected captain, notwithstanding his youth. 

8. Good writing is fostered by the reading of good books. 

9. Unless the kettle boiling be, 
Filling the teapot spoils the tea. 

10. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his starving 
tenants. 

11. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses, thanking God for 
their beauty. 

12. In the battle off Cape Vincent, Nelson gave orders for board- 
ing the "San Josef," exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey, or victory!" 

VII. CONJUGATION. 

176. Conjugation Defined. — It is often convenient 



304 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

to have the different forms of the verb arranged 
together in regular order. 

Definition. — The changes in the form of a verb are 
called its Conjugation. 

177. Conjugation of " Be." — The irregular verb 
" be " is conjugated as follows : — 



Indicative Mode. 




Present. 




I am. 


We are. 


You are (Thou art). 


You are. 


He is. 


They are. 


Past. 




I was. 


We were. 


You were (Thou wast, or wert). 


You were. 


He was. 


They were. 


Future. 




I shall be. 


We shall be. 


You will be (Thou wilt be). 


You will be. 


He will be. 


They will be. 


Present Perfect. 




I have been. 


We have been. 


You have been (Thou hast been) . 


You have been. 


He has been. 


They have been. 


Past Perfect. 




I had been. 


We had been. 


You had been (Thou hadst been) . 


You had been. 


He had been. 


They had been. 


Future Perfect. 




I shall have been. 


You shall have been 


You will have been 


You will have been. 


(Thou wilt have been). 




He will have been. 


They will have been. 





OF VERBS 






Subjunctive Mode J 






(Often preceded by " if."] 


I 




Present. 




I be 




We be. 


You be (Thou 


be). 


You be. 


Hebe. 


Past. 


They be. 


I were. 




We were. 


You were (Th< 


)u wert). 


You were. 


He were. 


Present Perfect. 


They were. 


I have been. 




We have been. 


You have been (Thou have been). 


You have been. 


He have been. 


Past Perfect. 


They have been. 


I had been. 




We had been. 


You had been (Thou had been). 


You had been. 


He had been. 




They had been. 




Imperative Mode, 


, 




Present. 






Be, do be. 






Infinitives. 






Rool-Infinitivea. 




Present. 




Perfect. 


[To] be. 


Infinitives in "-ing." 


[To] have been. 


Present. 




Perfect. 


Being. 


Participles. 


Having been. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect. 


Being. 


Been. 


Having been. 



205 



178. Conjugation of " Call." — The conjugation of 

1 For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with " may," " might," 
"should," and "would" see 162. 



206 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



the verb " call," which may be taken as a type of 
all regular verbs, is given below. For the sake of 
brevity, only the third person singular is given in 
the indicative and subjunctive, since the other forms 
may be easily supplied : — 

Active Voice. 
Indicative Mode. 



Present. 

He calls. 


Present Emphatic Present Progressive. 

He does call. He is calling. 


Past. 

He called. 


Past Emphatic. Past Progressive. 

He did call. He was calling. 


Future. 

He will call. 


Future Progressive. 
He will be calling. 


Present Perfect. 

He has called. 


Present Perfect Progresive. 

He has been calling. 


Past Perfect. 
He had called. 


Past Perfect Progressive. 

He had been calling. 


Future Perfect. 

He will have called. 


Future Perfect Progressive. 

He will have been calling. 




Subjunctive Mode.t 


Present. 

He call. 


(Often preceded by "if.") 

Present Emphatic. Present Progressive. 

He do call. He be calling. 


Past. 

He called. 


Past Emphatic. Past Progressive. 

Pie did call. He were calling. 



Present Perfect. 
He have called. 



Past Perfect. 

He had called. 



i For subjunctive verb-phrases formed 
should," and " would " see 162. 



Present Perfect Progresive. 

He have been calling. 

Past Perfect Progressive. 

He had been calling, 
with " may," " might," 





OF VERBS 


207 


Present. 

Call. 


Imperative Mode. 

Present Emphatic. Present Progressive. 

Do call. Be calling, do be calling. 


Present. 

[To] call. . 


Infinitives. 

Root-Infinitives. 


Present Progressive. 

[To] be calling. 


Perfect. 

[To] have called. 




Perfect Progressive. 

[To] have been calling. 


Present. 

Calling. 


Infinitives in " ing.' 
Perfect. 

Having called. 


Perfect Progressive. 

Having been calling. 


Present. 

Calling. 


Participles. 


Past. 

Called. 


Perfect. 

Having called. 


Passive Voice. 


Perfect Progressive. 

Having been calling. 


Present. 
He is called. 


Indicative Mode. 

Present Progressive. 

He is being called. 


Past. 

He was called. 


Future. 

He will be called. 

Present Perfect. 
He has been called. 

Past Perfect. 

He had been called. 


Past Progressive. 

He was being called. 



Future Perfect. 
He will have been called. 



208 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
Subjunctive Mode.* 

(Often preceded by "if.") 



Present. 

He be called. 


Past. Past Progressive. 

He were called. He were being called 


Present Perfect. 

have been called. 


Past Perfect. 

He had been called. 


Present. 

Be called. 


Imperative. 

Present Emphatic. 

Do be called. 



Infinitives. 

Present. Perfect. 

[To] be called. [To] have been called. 

Participles. 

Present. Past. Perfect. 

Being called. Called. Having been called. 



179. How to Parse Verbs. — To parse a finite verb 
we must give its — 

(i) Class: whether transitive or intransitive. 

(2) Principal parts. 

(3) Voice. 

(4) Mode. 

(5) Tense. 

(6) Person. 

(7) Number. 

(8) Construction. 

1 For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with " may," " might," 
" should," and " would " see 162. 



OF VERBS 209 

To parse an infinitive or a participle we must 
give its — 

(1) Class: whether transitive or intransitive. 

(2) Voice. 

(3) Tense. 

(4) Construction. 

EXERCISE 162. 

Parse the verbs and verb-phrases in the following 
sentences ; also the infinitives and participles that are 
not used with auxiliaries to form verb-phrases : — 

1. She watches him as a cat would watch a mouse. 

2. What is read twice is commonly better remembered than 
what is transcribed. 

3. A man may write at any time if he will set himself doggedly to it. 

4. A falcon, towering in her pride of place, 

Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. 

5. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept; 
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. 

6. The moving moon went up the sky, 

And nowhere did abide; 
Softly she was going up, 
And a star or two beside. 

7. Full fathom five thy father lies; 

Of his bones are coral made; 
Those are pearls that were his eyes: 

Nothing of him that doth fade 
But doth suffer a sea-change 
Into something rich and strange. 

8. True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 

As those move easiest who have learned to dance; 
'Tis not enough no harshness gives offense, — 
The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 



210 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

9. Of all the wonders that I yet have heard, 

It seems to me most strange that men should fear; 
Seeing that death, a necessary end, 
Will come when it will come. 
10. Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king, he would not in mine age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies, 
n. Blandishments will not fascinate us, nor will threats of a 
"halter" intimidate. For, under God, we are determined that 
wheresoever, whensoever, or howsoever we shall be called to make 
our exit, we will die free men. — Josiah Quincy, Jr.: "Observations 
on the Boston Port Bill, 1774." 

12. Yesterday the greatest question was decided which ever 
was debated in America; and a greater perhaps never was, nor 
will be, decided among men. A resolution was passed without one 
dissenting colony, that these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent States. — John Adams : Letter 
to Mrs. Adams, July 5, 1776. 



CHAPTER VII 



OF ADVERBS 



An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, ad- 
jective, or other adverb. 

Most adverbs are used only with verbs; hence the name "ad- 
verb." The adverbs that are used with adjectives or other adverbs 
are few in number. 

180. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning. — 
Classified according to meaning, adverbs are of six 
kinds : — 

(i) Adverbs of time: as, "Let us go now." 

(2) Adverbs of place: as, "Come here." 

(3) Adverbs 0) manner : as, "He fought bravely." 

(4) Adverbs 0} degree: as, "He talks little." 

(5) Adverbs of cause: as, "Why did you come?" 

(6) Adverbs of assertion: as, "Perhaps I can help you;" "No; 
you can not help me." 

"No" and "yes," which are used by themselves as the equiva- 
lents of sentences, are classed as adverbs for historical reasons. 

EXERCISE 163. 

Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of 
adverbs ; classified according to meaning. 

181. Adverbs Classified According to Use. — Classi- 
fied according to use, adverbs are of three kinds : — 



212 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

i. Limiting Adverbs, used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb: as, "He walked rapidly;" "She is very 
pretty, and talks exceedingly well." 

2. Interrogative Adverbs, used to ask questions: as, "When did 
you arrive?" 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs, used to introduce clauses: as, "We 
went on to Paris, where we stayed a week." 

Conjunctive adverbs shade off into conjunctions, from which 
they frequently cannot be distinguished. 

EXERCISE 164. 

Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of 
adverbs, classified according to use. 

182. Adverbs Classified According to Form. — Classi- 
fied according to form, adverbs are of three kinds : — 

1. Simple Adverbs, which express their meaning without the 
aid of an adverbial termination: as, "Come here;" "That is too 
bad." This class includes nouns and adjectives that are made 
into adverbs by being set in an adverbial position: as, "He was 
stone dead;" "Pull hard." 

2. Flexional Adverbs, which have distinctive adverbial termina- 
tions: as, "You acted wisely." 

3. Phrasal Adverbs, which are idiomatic adverbial phrases 
laat cannot easily be separated into parts. The following are 
uimmon examples: — 



arm-in-arm 


at once 


in vain 


as yet 


at worst 


now-a-days 


at all 


by all means 


of course 


at best 


by far 


of late 


at large 


face to face 


of old 


at last 


for good 


on high 


at least 


ere long 


one by one 


at length 


in general 


two by two 


at most 


in short 





OF ADVERBS 213 

The most common form of adverb in literary 
English is the form in "-ly." It is made freely 
from all kinds of adjectives except those that already 
end in "-ly." Adjectives that already endin"-ly," 
as " lively " and " friendly," usually have no cor- 
responding adverb. We use instead some adverbial 
phrase : as, " in a friendly way ; " " in a lively man- 
ner." 

EXERCISE 165. 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct accord- 
ing to the best usage, and give the reason : — 

1. She gets her lessons easy {easily) enough. 

2. Are you coming with us? Sure {surely). 

3. Speak slow {slowly) and distinct {distinctly). 

4. He could scarce {scarcely) control his feelings. 

5. A person should dress suitable {suitably) to his station. 

183. Comparison of Adverbs. — Many adverbs de- 
note ideas that vary in degree, and therefore they 
admit of comparison, like adjectives (127). 

Monosyllabic adverbs (and a few others) usually 
form their comparative and superlative degrees by 
adding "-er " and " -est : " as, " Pull harder." 

Adverbs in " -ly " usually form the comparative 
and superlative by prefixing " more " and " most : " 
as, "He felt it most keenly." 

In other respects the comparison of adverbs re- 
sembles in form and meaning the comparison of ad- 
jectives. 



2i 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

EXERCISE 166. 

Tell which of the italicized expressions is preferable, 
and give the reason : — 

i. I can study easiest (most easily) in the morning. 

2. He writes plainer (more plainly) than he used to. 

3. You ought to value your privileges higher (more highly). 

4. Which can run the faster (fastest), Connor or Boardman? 

5. Which is the farther (farthest) north, New York, Chicago, 
or San Francisco? 

184. Adjective or Adverb. — It is sometimes a ques- 
tion whether to use an adjective or an adverb after 
such verbs as c< grow," " look," " sound," " smell," 
"taste." If the added word applies to the subject 
of the verb, it should be an adjective ; if to the verb, 
it should be an adverb. We say, " We feel warm" 
when we mean that we are warm ; we say, " We feel 
warmly on this subject," when we mean that our 
feelings are stirred up. In the first sentence " warm " 
is an attribute complement ; in the second, " warmly " 
is a modifier of the verb. As a rule, it is proper 
to use an adjective whenever the verb resembles in 
meaning some form of the verb " be " or " seem ; " 
otherwise we use an adverb. Sometimes we may 
use either adjective or adverb, with no difference in 
meaning: as, " We arrived safe {safely)." 

EXERCISE 167. 

1 . Distinguish between : — 
I. That looks good (well). 



OF ADVERBS 215 

2. We found the way easy {easily). 

3. The potatoes are boiling soft (softly). 

4. The new bell-boy appeared prompt (promptly). 

2. Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and 
give the reason : — 

1. She plays very good (well). 

2. The door shut easy (easily). 

3. Deal gentle (gently) with them. 

4. How sweet (sweetly) those blossoms smell! 

5. He stood firm (firmly) in spite of opposition. 

6. He felt awkward (awkwardly) in her presence. 

7. She looks beautiful (beautifidly) in a pink gown. 

8. He did not act awkward (awkwardly) in her presence. 

9. The wind blows cold (coldly) through the gaps in these moun- 
tains. 

185. Position of Adverbs. — Adverbs, like other 
modifiers, should be placed next to the word or 
words that they modify. 

The word "only" requires special care, as will appear from ob- 
serving how changes in its position affect the meaning of the follow- 
ing sentences: — 

(a) Only he lost his hat. (b) He only lost his hat. (c) He lost 
only his hat. (d) He lost his only hat. (e) He lost his hat only. 

As a general rule, "only" should be placed immediately before 
what it is intended to modify. Occasionally, when no ambiguity 
would arise (as at the end of sentences), it may be placed after the 
word it modifies, with an emphatic, almost disparaging effect: as, 
"He lost his hat only." 



216 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

186. How to Parse Adverbs. — To parse an adverb 
we must give its — 

(i) Class according to (a) meaning, (b) use, and (c) form. 

(2) Comparison. 

(3) Construction. 



CHAPTER VIII 



OF PREPOSITIONS 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 

The function of a preposition is to bring a noun 
or a pronoun into a modifying relation with a noun, 
a pronoun, an adjective, a verb, or an adverb : as, 
" The book on the table ; " " What in the world 
was that ? " "I am sorry for them ; " " We traveled 
through England ; " " He stayed out in the cold." 

187. Prepositions Classified. — The following is a 
classified list 1 of the prepositions in common use : — 





Simple 


Prepositions. 




after 


down 


in 


over 


to 


at 


ere 


of 


since 


under 


but 


for 


off 


through 


up 


by 


from 


on 


till 


with 




Compound Prepositions. 




abroad 


around, round 


between 


until 


about 


aslant 




betwixt 


unto 


above 


athwart 




beyond 


upon 


across 


before 




despite 


within 


against 


behind 




into 


without 


along 


below 




throughout 




amidst, amid 


beneath 




toward, towards 




among, amongst 


beside, besides 


underneath 




i To the Teacher.— This, list 


is for reference, not for m 


emorizing. 



218 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 





Prepositions Derived from Verbs. 


barring 


past 


respecting 


concerning 


pending 


saving, save 


during 


notwithstanding 


touching 


excepting, except regarding 






Phrasal Prepositions. 


according to 


by way of 


in opposition to 


apart from 


for the sake of 


in place of 


as for 


in accordance with 


in preference to 


as regards 


in addition to 


in spite of 


as to 


in case of 


instead of 


because of 


in compliance with 


on account of 


by means of 


in consequence of 


out of 


by reason of 


in front of 

EXERCISE 169. 


with regard to 



Construct sentences illustrating the use of such prep- 
ositions as the teacher may select. 

188. Objects of Prepositions. — The word following 
a preposition is called its Object, and is in the ob- 
jective case. It is commonly a noun or a pronoun ; 
but it may be any word or group of words used as 
a noun : as, 

(i) Noun: Come into the garden. 

(2) Pronoun : I stood behind him. 

(3) Adverb : I never felt it till now. 

(4) Adjective : Lift up your eyes on high. 

(5) Prepositional phrase : He stepped from behind the tree. 

(6) Infinitive phrase : None knew thee but to love thee. 

(7) Clause: Listen to what I say. 

Used before clauses, prepositions often become indistinguish- 
able from conjunctions: as, "He came before I did. 



OF PREPOSITIONS 219 

EXERCISE 170. 

Construct sentences illustrating the different kinds of 
object that a preposition may have. 

189. Prepositional Phrases. — A phrase consisting of 
a preposition and its object, with or without modi- 
fiers, is called a Prepositional Phrase. If it modifies 
a noun or a pronoun, it is an Adjective Phrase : as, 
" The wages of sin is death." If it modifies a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb, it is an Adverbial Phrase : 
as, " Man shall not live by bread alone." 

Occasionally a prepositional phrase is used as a noun: as, "Over 
the fence is out." In such cases there is really an ellipsis of some 
word which the prepositional phrase modifies. 

EXERCISE 171. 

Construct two sentences containing adjective preposi- 
tional phrases ; two containing adverbial prepositional 
phrases. 

190. Position of Prepositions. — Ordinarily a prep- 
osition, as its name implies, is placed before its ob- 
ject : as, " I sprang to the window." Sometimes, 
however, it is put after its object : as, " What are 
we coming to ? " 

To the Teacher — The theory, advanced by some grammarians, 
that a sentence should not end with a preposition, is not supported 
by the practice of the best writers, as may be seen from the follow- 
ing representative quotations: — 



220 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

"Some little toys that girls are fond of." — Swift. 
"You see what my tricks have brought me to." — Goldsmith. 
"What god doth the wizard pray to?" — Hawthorne. 
"Rather bear those ills we have 
Than fly to others that we know not of." — Shakespeare. 

The following sentences are entirely in accord with the best 
English idiom: — 

What are you looking at ? What are you thinking of? 
What did you ask for? That is all I came for. 

191. Special Use of Some Prepositions. — Preposi- 
tions play a very important part in our language, 
and have many idiomatic uses. Most of these can 
be learned only by observing the custom of good 
speakers and writers. The following notes on some 
special uses of a few prepositions may prove help- 
ful:— 

At, in: — Before names of places to denote "where," at is used 
when the place is viewed as a mere point; in is used when the speaker 
desires to make prominent the idea "within the bounds of:" as, 
"He arrived at Liverpool in the morning and remained in that city 
two days." 

Compare to, compare with : — We compare one thing to another 
to show similarity: as, "Burke compared the parks of a city to the 
lungs of the body." We compare one thing with another to show 
either similarity or difference, especially difference: as, "Compare 
our comfort with their poverty." 

Confide in, confide to: — Confide in means "trust in:" as, "In 
thy protection I confide." Confide to means "intrust to:" as, "He 
confided the secret to his mother." 

Differ from, differ with: — We use differ from when we refer to 
unlikeness between objects; when we refer to disagreement in 
opinion we use either differ from or differ with: as, "These two 



OF PREPOSITIONS 221 

books differ entirely from each other;" "I differ from or with the 
honorable gentleman on that point." 

Different from : — According to the best usage the proper preposi- 
tion after "different" and "differently" is from: as, "He is very 
different from his brother." 

Like: — Like, which is historically an adjective or an adverb, 
is in some of its uses frequently called a preposition, because it 
resembles a preposition in function: as, "Quit yourselves like men;" 
"She looks like him." Since, however, it admits of comparison, 
some grammarians prefer to call it, even in these sentences, an 
adjective or an adverb governing the objective case. Similar re- 
marks apply to some of the uses of near. 

Of: — Of is often used to denote identity; and then the prepo- 
sitional phrase has the force of an appositive: as, "the city of St. 
Louis," "the State of Ohio," "the island of Cuba." 

Wait for, wait on: — Wait for means "await:" as, "We will 
wait for you at the corner." Wait on means "attend:" as, "At 
dinner the women waited on the men." 

EXERCISE 172. 

Fill the following blanks with appropriate preposi- 
tions : — 

1. The king confided his ministers. 

2. We stayed — — ■ London two weeks the Victoria Hotel. 

3. The marriage customs of the Russians are very different ■ 

ours. 

4. He says that he shall be back in an hour; but we cannot 
wait him. 

5. Admiral Dewey remained the Philippines a year after 

his victory Manila Bay. 

6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot ■ 

the younger of their numbest. 

7. We arrived Paris in the evening. that city we 

stayed the Hotel Normandie. 



222 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

8. He who compares his own condition that of others will 

find that he has many reasons for thinking himself fortunate. 

192. How to Parse Prepositions. — To parse a prepo- 
sition one must give — 

(i) Its object. 

(2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces. 

EXERCISE 173. 

Parse the prepositions in Exercise 162. 



CHAPTER IX 

OF CONJUNCTIONS 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect sen- 
tences, phrases, or words. 

Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from prepositions 
and relative pronouns, which are also connecting words. A prepo- 
sition introduces a modifying phrase; a relative pronoun stands 
for a noun with which it connects a modifying clause; a conjunc- 
tion merely connects clauses, phrases, or words that have the same 
grammatical construction. 

Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning of a para- 
graph to connect it with what precedes. 

The most important conjunctions are: "and," "as," "although," 
"though," "because," "but," "for," "however," "if," "lest," 
"nevertheless," "nor," "or," "since," "still," "than," "that," 
"therefore," "wherefore," "'whether," "unless," "yet." 

193. Classification of Conjunctions. — Conjunctions 
may be arranged in two general classes : — 

(i) Coordinating Conjunctions, which connect words, phrases, 
or independent clauses: as, "Sink or swim;" "By the people and 
for the people;" "I ran fast, but I missed the train." 

(2) Subordinating Conjunctions, which introduce subordinate 
clauses: as, "I came because you called me;" "Guy is older than 
Lewis [is];" "Galileo taught that the earth moves;" "Unless it 
rains, we shall all go." 

194. Correlative Conjunctions. — Conjunctions are 
sometimes used in pairs, the first of the pair indi- 
cating that something will presently be added: as, 



224 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

" His conduct was neither wise nor just;" "Both 
John and Henry may go with you. " 

Definition. — Conjunctions used in pairs are called 
Correlative Conjunctions. 

The most common correlative conjunctions are : 
" both — and," " either — or," " neither — nor," 
"whether — or," " not only — but also." 

When conjunctions are used as correlatives, aa "both — and," 
"either — or," each of the correlated words should be so placed as 
to indicate clearly what ideas are to be connected in thought. This 
principle is violated in "He not only visited Paris, but Berlin also." 
In this sentence the position of "not only" before the verb "visited" 
leads one to expect some corresponding verb in the second part of 
the sentence; in fact, however, the two connected words are "Paris" 
and "Berlin;" "visited" applies to both. This meaning is clearly 
indicated by putting "not only" before "Paris:" thus, "He visited 
not only Paris, but Berlin also." As a rule, the word after the first 
correlative should be the same part of speech as the word after the 
second correlative. 

195. Phrasal Conjunctions. — The following expres- 
sions are best parsed as Phrasal Conjunctions : — 

as if as sure as in order that 

as though except that for as much as 

as long as in case that provided that 

as soon as 

196. How to Parse Conjunctions. — To parse a con- 
junction we must tell— 

(i) Its class. 

(2) What it connects. 

EXERCISE 174. 

1. Review Exercises 79 and 80. 

2. Parse the conjunctions in Exercise 162. 



CHAPTER X 

OF INTERJECTIONS 

An Interjection is a word used as a sudden ex- 
pression of feeling, but not forming part of a sen- 
tence. 

197. Classification of Interjections. — Interjections 
may be arranged in three general classes : — 

i. Simple Interjections, which are never anything else than in- 
terjections: as, "Oh!" "eh!" "hurrah!" "pooh!" "pshaw!" "tut!'' 

2. Secondary Interjections, which are other parts of speech used 
as interjections: as, "Mercy!" "farewell!" "nonsense!" 

3. Phrasal Interjections, which are groups of words used as 
single interjections: as, "Goodness gracious!" 

EXERCISE 175. 
Point out the intersections in Exercise 8 1 . 



APPENDIX 

LIST OF STRONG AND IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS 

The forms given in the following list are all supported by good 
usage; but they are not in all cases the only authorized forms. For 
full information on the subject, students must have recourse to 
the best dictionaries. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


alight 


alighted, alit 


alighted, alit 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


am (be) 


was 


been 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bear ("bring "forth") 


bore 


born 


bear ("carry") 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bid ("command") 


bade 


bidden 


bid ("offer money") 


bid 


bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent, blended 


blent, blended 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 



228 


APPENDIX 




Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave ("adhere") 


cleaved 


cleaved 


cleave ("split") 


clove, cleft 


cloven, cleft 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dress 


drest, dressed 


drest, dressed 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 





APPENDIX 


2 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 1 


hung, hanged 1 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, heaved 2 


hove 2 , heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit * 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay- 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


he ("recline") 


lay 


lain 


he ("tell a falsehood") 


lied 


lied 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


i " Hanged " is used only 


of execution by hanging. 


2 " She heaved a sigh ; " " 


The crew hove the 


cargo overboard." 



229 



23° 


APPENDIX 




Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, rived 


run 


ran 


run 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


seethe (intransitive) 


seethed 


seethed 


seethe (transitive) 


seethed, sod 


seethed, sodden 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show- 


showed 


shown 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 


shrive 


shrove, shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit 


slit 


smell 


smelt, smelled 


smelt, smelled 





APPENDIX 


2 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


smite 


. smote 


smitten 


sow 


sowed 


sowed, sown 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spin 


spun 


spun 


spit 


spit 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, staved 


stove, staved 


stay 


stayed, staid 


stayed, staid 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 



2 3 2 

Present, 
throw 
thrust 
tread 
wake 
wear 
weave 
weep 
wet 
win 
wind 
wring 
write 



APPENDIX 




Past. 


Past Participle 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


trod 


trodden 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wore 


worn 


wove 


woven 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


won 


won 


wound 


wound 


wrung 


wrung 


wrote 


written 



PART III 

LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 



PREFACE 

" Lessons in Composition " is intended to provide 
an outline of constructive work in English for the last 
two years of the elementary school. The exercises 
are planned for one or two lessons each week, but 
it will be found easy to adapt them to a larger num- 
ber. The material included is typical and represents, 
it is believed, all the best modern methods and de- 
vices without undue emphasis upon any. 

The arrangement, it will be observed, is analytic, 
beginning with the whole composition and ending 
with the word. At the same time a variety of prac- 
tical work is suggested in each section, so that there 
will be no loss of interest at any point. All forms 
of composition, oral and written, including letters, 
are distributed throughout the two years. 

The mechanical aspects of composition have been 
kept in the background. Punctuation and kindred 
matters, as ends in themselves, are of slight interest 
to children. The aim has been to gather a body of 
attractive subject-matter about which pupils will en- 
joy thinking, talking, and writing. This is drawn 
from three sources : the pupil's own experience, 
English literature, and such school subjects as his- 
tory and geography. Moreover, attention has been 



236 PREFACE 

centered primarily on talking and writing about this 
subject-matter in such a way as to accomplish a def- 
inite purpose. Practice in composition, to be worth 
anything, must proceed from an aim which seems 
both real and worthy to the children themselves. 
When a genuine and intelligent enthusiasm for the 
learning of good English is engendered, the drudg- 
ery of mechanical matters disappears. Children 
are willing to take pains when it appears there is 
something to be gained by doing so. 

In aim and spirit " Lessons in Composition " is in 
substantial harmony with " Lessons in Language 
and Literature," which it follows, and with " A 
Modern English Grammar," which it is intended to 
accompany. Many items ordinarily included in a 
book of composition lessons have been omitted be- 
cause they are already sufficiently emphasized in 
other parts of the series. 






INTRODUCTION 

You must not think of composition as some 
strange new thing, likely to be both difficult and un- 
interesting. Every pupil who will use this book has 
been composing almost all his life. For composi- 
tion is merely " putting together " your ideas and 
expressing them, and this you have been doing ever 
since you learned to talk. It is only because we do 
not talk or write as well as we should like that we 
study composition. 

There are two respects in which the talking and 
writing of most of us need improvement. Either 
we are not clear or we are not interesting; and 
very often we are neither. This is because we do 
not know how to think clearly, or to observe 
closely ; or how to put our words into sentences, 
our sentences into paragraphs, or how to arrange our 
paragraphs. We can learn these things if we will 
give our minds to it, try always to make what we 
have to say both clear and interesting, and, above 
all, learn from really good writers how they have 
succeeded where we have failed. 

The following lessons are intended to help you 
learn how to address others so that they will easily 
understand you and be glad to listen to what you 



238 INTRODUCTION 

have to say. It may seem to you now that learning 
to express your ideas is not of great importance, but 
if you will think a moment you will surely believe 
that it is. Lawyers will tell you that half the law- 
suits occur because people misunderstand each other. 
Remember, in the next place, that we do not live 
by ourselves, but in a community, and if we are to 
have any influence with our neighbors we must be 
able to persuade them to our way of thinking. 
Moreover, many who study these lessons will one 
day speak from the platform, or write for the papers, 
or compose books ; all will certainly write many 
letters. Doubtless you will be able to think of many 
more reasons for learning to speak well and write 
well — so that you can tell a good story, for instance. 

At all events there is another side to the study of 
composition which you must never forget. There 
is no better way to learn how to understand and 
enjoy the good speaking and writing of others than 
by trying to improve your own. No doubt you will 
agree that everyone should be at home in the great 
world of books in which you can travel far and wide 
and meet whom you will. Remember that every 
effort you make to master the art of language is fit- 
ting you to become a good reader, one who under- 
stands and enjoys to the full the best books of every 
kind. 

Whatever benefit comes to you from studying 
these lessons will come through your own earnest 



INTRODUCTION 239 

efforts. Learn to see with your own eyes, hear 
with your own ears, and think for yourself. The 
interesting books you read were written by men who 
found something interesting where others saw noth- 
ing. Resolve that you will find something worth 
saying or writing every day, and that you will ex- 
press it appropriately. If you will honestly do this 
you will be both surprised and gratified to note the 
progress you are making in the art of English 
Composition. 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 

" Lessons in Composition " has been arranged so 
as to make the work of the teacher easy but not so 
as to make her unnecessary. Skill in any art can be 
obtained only by much intelligent practice. Each 
teacher must inevitably adopt the best text-book 
obtainable to the needs of the particular pupils in 
her care. 

The length of time, therefore, to be spent upon 
any of the principles here set forth will depend upon 
circumstances. It is assumed that classes using the 
book are also studying literary classics, and the 
method here employed should be applied freely to 
such additional selections as may seem wise or nec- 
essary. Results are to be measured, not in terms of 
so many pieces studied or exercises performed, but 
in the pupils' intelligent interest and in their ability 
to think, express, and criticise. 

It should be the aim of the teacher to cause the 
pupils to become able to criticise their own work 
and that of their classmates. In bringing this about 
attention must be centered from time to time upon 
a few really important matters, with clear statement 
and apt illustration from the teacher, so that the 



242 SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 

pupils read or listen with these points definitely in 
mind. 

Emphasis should be laid upon oral composition, 
both for the sake of oral expression, and as a prep- 
aration for writing. Let there be much talking, 
provided only that it be purposeful and well planned. 
The American citizen should be able to think on 
his feet. 

It should be remembered that training in English 
involves the ear. Reading aloud, by both pupils 
and teacher, should be much resorted to as a means 
of ascertaining the qualities of a piece of writing and 
of developing the language sense. 

Although the external forms of composition have 
been kept in the background, it is not intended that 
they shall be overlooked. When the first written 
composition is prepared the pupils should receive 
the necessary directions for writing and folding. 
They should be required to use white paper, about 
eight by ten inches in size ; to write on one side 
only, with black ink ; to write the title in the middle 
of the first line, underscore it, and leave a double 
space ; to leave a common margin of one inch and 
a paragraph margin of two ; to read their themes 
carefully before handing them in to see that there 
are no mistakes in spelling, capitals, or punctuation ; 
and, finally, to number each page, fold the whole 
lengthwise, and with the crease lying to the left, in- 
dorse near the top with their name, the date, and 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 243 

the title. Rules of punctuation will be found at the 
close of the grammar and the forms of letters in 
" Lessons in Language and Literature." 

Every teacher of composition should have at hand 
and use freely some of the many excellent manuals 
of composition now to be had. Among the best of 
these are Thorndike (Century), Scott " Elementary 
English Composition," (Allyn and Bacon), Carpenter 
" Elements of Rhetoric, (Macmillan), Lewis " First 
Manual of Composition and a First Book in Writ- 
ing English," (Macmillan). For suggestions on 
method and spirit of the work Chubb's " Teaching 
of English " (Macmillan) is invaluable. 



CHAPTER I 

THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 

Read the following poem : — 

Herve Riel. 
On the sea and at the Hogue, sixteen hundred ninety-two, 
Did the English fight the French, — woe to France! 
And, the thirty-first of May, helter-skelter thro' the blue, 
Like a crowd of frightened porpoises a shoal of sharks pursue, 
Came crowding ship on ship to St. Malo on the Ranee, 
With the English fleet in view. 

'Twas the squadron that escaped, with the victor in full chase; 
First and foremost of the drove, in his great ship, Damfreville; 

Close on him fled, great and small, 

Twenty -two good ships in all; 
And they signalled to the place 
''Help the winners of a race! 

Get us guidance, give us harbor, take us quick — or, quicker still, 
Here's the English can and will!" 

Then the pilots of the place put out brisk and leapt on board; 
"Why, what hope or chance have ships like these to pass?" 
laughed they: 
"Rocks to starboard, rocks to port, all the passage scarred and scored, 
Shall the Formidable here, with her twelve and eighty guns 

Think to make the river-mouth by the single narrow way, 
Trust to enter where 'tis ticklish for a craft of twenty tons, 
And with flow at full beside ? 
Now 'tis slackest ebb of tide. 
Reach the mooring? Rather say, 
While rock stands or water runs, 
Not a ship will leave the bay!" 



24 6 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

Then was called a council straight. 

Brief and bitter the debate: 

"Here's the English at our heels; would you have them take in tow 

All that's left us of the fleet, linked together stern and bow, 

For a prize to Plymouth Sound ? 

Better run the ships aground!" 

(Ended Damfreville his speech.) 
Not a minute more to wait! 

"Let the Captains all and each 

Shove ashore, then blow up, burn the vessels on the beach! 
France must undergo her fate. 

"Give the word!" But no such word 
Was ever spoke or heard; 

For up stood, for out stepped, for in struck amid all these 
— A Captain? A Lieutenant? A Mate — first, second, third? 

No such man of mark, and meet 

With his betters to compete! 

But a simple Breton sailor pressed by Tourville for the fleet, 
A poor coasting-pilot he, Herve' Riel the Croisickese. 

And "What mockery or malice have we here?" cries Herve Riel: 
"Are you mad, you Malouins ? Are you cowards, fools, or rogues ? 
Talk to me of rocks and shoals, me who took the soundings, tell 
On my fingers every bank, every shallow, every swell 

'Twixt the offing here and Greve where the river disembogues? 
Are you bought by English gold? Is it love the lying's for? 
Morn and eve, night and day, 
Have I piloted your bay, 
Entered free and anchored fast at the foot of Solidor. 

Burn the fleet and ruin France? That were worse than fifty 
Hogues ! 
Sirs, they know I speak the truth! Sirs, believe me there's a 
way! 
Only let me lead the line. 

Have the biggest ship to steer, 
Get this Formidable clear, 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 247 

Make the others follow mine, 

And I lead them, most and least, by a passage I know well, 

Right to Solidor past Greve, 
And there lay them safe and sound; 

And if one ship misbehave, 

— Keel so much as grate the ground, 
Why, I've nothing but my life, — here's my head!" cries Herve RieL 

Not a minute more to wait. 
"Steer us in then, small and great! 

Take the helm, lead the line, save the squadron!" cried its chief. 
Captains, give the sailor place! 

He is Admiral, in brief. 
Still the north -wind by God's grace! 
See the noble fellow's face 
As the big ship with a bound, 
Clears the entry like a hound, 
Keeps the passage as its inch of way were the wide sea's profound! 

See, safe thro' shoal and rock, 

How they follow in a flock, 
Not a ship that misbehaves, not a keel that grates the ground, 

Not a spar that comes to grief! 
The peril, see, is past, 
All are harboured to the last, 

And just. as Herve Riel hollas "Anchor!" — sure as fate 
Up the English come, too late. 

So, the storm subsides to calm: 

The}' see the green trees wave 

On the heights o'erlooking Greve. 
Hearts that bled are staunched with balm. 
"Just our rapture to enhance, 
Let the English rake the bay, 
Gnash their teeth and glare askance 

As they cannonade away! 
'Neath rampired Solidor pleasant riding on the Ranee!" 
Now hope succeeds despair on each Captain's countenance! 
Out burst all with one accord, 



248 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

"This is Paradise for Hell! 

Let France, let France's King 

Thank the man that did the thing!" 
What a shout, and all one word, 

"Herve Riel!" 
As he stepped in front once more, 

Not a symptom of surprise 

In the frank blue Breton eyes, 
Just the same man as before. 

Then said Damfreville, "My friend, 
I must speak out at the end, 

Tho' I find the speaking hard. 
Praise is deeper than the lips; 
You have saved the King his ships, 

You must name your own reward. 
'Faith our sun was near eclipse! 
Demand whate'er you will, 
France remains your debtor still. 
Ask to heart's content and have! or my name's not Damfreville." 

Then a beam of fun outbroke 

On the bearded mouth that spoke, 

As the honest heart laughed through 

Those frank eyes of Breton blue: 

"Since I needs must say my say, 

Since on board the duty's done, 

And from Malo Roads to Croisic Point, what is it but a run?— 

Since 'tis ask and have, I may — ■ 

Since the others go ashore — 

Come! A good whole holiday! 

Leave to go and see my wife, whom I call the Belle Aurore!" 
That he asked and that he got, — nothing more. 

Name and deed alike are lost: 
Not a pillar nor a post 

In his Croisic keeps alive the feat as it befell; 
Not a head in white and black 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 249 

On a single fishing smack, 

In memory of the man but for whom had gone to wrack 

All that France saved from the fight whence England bore the bell. 
Go to Paris: rank on rank 

Search the heroes flung pell-mell 
On the Louvre, face and flank! 

You shall look long enough e're you come to Herve Riel. 
So, for better and for worse, 
Herve Riel, accept my verse! 
In my verse, Herve Riel, do thou once more 
Save the squadron, honour France, love thy wife the Bell Aurore! 

— Robert Browning. 

I. The Topic Sentence. — If we should wish to tell 
someone very briefly what Browning's poem, " Herve 
Riel," is about, could we not do so in a single sen- 
tence ? For instance : — " Herve Riel, a simple 
Breton sailor, saved the French squadron from the 
British, after the battle of the Hogue, by piloting 
the Admiral's ship through Malo Roads." Or we 
might say simply this : The poem tells how a sim- 
ple Breton sailor once saved the French squadron. 

EXERCISE 1. 

1 . Make a list of six of your favorite stories , long 
or short, and tell the class as briefly as you can what 
each one is really about. Get them to help you to cut 
down your statement until it is just a single sentence. 

1. Choose in class one of the following books or pieces 
and let everyone in the class prepare to give in a single 
sentence what it is about. If the list does not suit you, 
add to it before making your choice. 



2 5 



LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 



i. Evangeline. 7. The Bird's Christmas Carol. 

2. Little Women. 8. The Barefoot Boy. 

3. Paul Revere's Ride. 9. Santa Filomena. 

4. The Constitution of the U. S. 10. The Nurnberg Stove. 

5. Your text-book in Geography, n. The Great Stone Face. 

6. Young Lochinvar. 12. Abou Ben Adhem. 

3. If you find there is some difference of opinion as to 
what the book chosen really is about, discuss its mean- 
ing in class. 

4. Imagine a conversation with an intimate friend 
about some book that you like and he or she doesn't like. 
Write your conversation in dialogue form. Before you 
copy, be sure that your punctuation and paragraphing 
are correct. 

Definition. — The subject of a story or any other 
piece of writing is called the Topic. 

Definition. — A sentence that gives the topic of a 
piece of writing is called a Topic Sentence. 

To the Teacher. — It has been thought wise to lighten the task 
of the teacher by suggesting topics for oral and written composition 
and of pieces of literature suitable for the exercise under considera- 
tion; but such suggestion should not be allowed in any way to fetter 
the teacher's choice or to cramp the originality of the pupil. 

2. The Title. — Notice the difference between the 
title of a piece of writing and even the shortest topic 
sentence. The title suggests what the book is about, 
but does not really tell you ; the sentence tells you. 
Many very different compositions might have the 
same title. You might write an account, for in- 
stance, of a fishing excursion you enjoyed last sum- 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 251 

mer ; a very good title for your story would be " A 
Happy Day." But suppose, instead, you wanted 
to explain how many ways there are in which 
one can spend a day happily ; could you not 
name this very different composition also " A Happy 
Day." ? And if a friend wanted to persuade you 
that the only happy day is a day when one has done 
somebody else a kindness, he would plainly have a 
right to use the same title. 

EXERCISE 2. 

1. From the title " Christmas Shopping,'" suggest a 
good topic sentence for a composition telling of a little 
girl's trip to the shops ; for one describing a business 
street during Christmas tveek ; for one proving that 
Christmas shopping ought to be done in January. 

2. Compose topic sentences for as many and as different 
compositions as you can find in each of the folloiviug 
titles : — 

1. A School Day. 4. Picking Apples. 

2. Football. 5. St. Patrick's Day. 

3. October. 

Let some one put on the board a list of the topics 
found for each title. 

3. Bring to class a list of books that you tliink have 
especially attractive titles. 

4. If you know one or tzuo that have poor titles, name 
them in class and tell what they are really about. Some 
one may be able to suggest better titles. 

5 . Write a letter to a publishing house that has brought 



252 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

out a good book under a poor title. Try to prove to them 
that they should change the title before bringing out a 
second edition. 

Caution. — The first thing to do when given a subject for a com- 
position is to decide the way in which you are going to look at the 
subject; and this you can always show in one sentence. 

The title of a composition should interest the reader as well as 
suggest the topic. 

3. Analyzing a Selection. — If we read " Herve 
Riel" again, we shall find that every one of its 
separate parts or stanzas has a topic of its own, and 
that each one of these topics contributes something 
to the idea we have of what the whole poem is 
about. 

Stanza i tells when and where the incident took place. 

Stanza 2 tells why the squadron signalled for help. 

Stanza 3 tells what the pilots said. 

Stanza 4 gives the decision of the officers' council. 

Stanza 5 introduces the hero. 

Stanza 6 tells us what he said. 

Stanza 7 gives the fulfillment of his promise. 

Stanza 8 tells the joy and gratitude of the Frenchmen. 

Stanza 9 narrates the Admiral's offer of reward. 

Stanza 10 tells what Herve' Riel asked for and got. 

Stanza 11 shows why the author wanted to write the story. 

EXERCISE 3. 

1. Tell the story of " Herve Riel" as exactly as you 
can. Use the tense for your verbs that the author uses. 

2. Let one member of the class take the role of the 
Admiral and another that of " Herve Riel" Hold a 
conversation suggested by that in the poem. 






THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 253 

3. Explain in class what each stanza or paragraph 
does in one of the follozving selections : — 

1. Young Lochinvar. 5. A chapter in your Geography. 

2. The King of Denmark's Ride. 6. A chapter in your History. 

3. A Waterfowl. 7. A chapter in your Reading book. 

4. The Gray Champion. 

4. Write a list of the chief incidents yon would in- 
troduce into a story of your own. Here are some sug- 
gestions for topics : — 

1. Hiawatha. 4. A Visit to Washington. 

2. The Golden Fleece. 5. An Accident. 

3. A Wrestling Match. 6. A Heroic Deed. 

5 . Discuss in class the proper order for these incidents. 
Definition. — Dividing a poem or other selection 

into its parts to show what each part tells is called 
Analyzing the selection. 

4. Making an Abstract. — By writing the topic sen- 
tences of every part of a poem or selection one after 
the other, it is plain that we get the whole selection 
in very much shortened form : thus : — 

1. On the thirty-first of May, after the battle of the Hogue, the 
French squadron fled towards St. Malo. 2. They signalled, "Give 
us help, or the English will take us." 3. When the pilots arrived, 
they said the ships were too large to make the river mouth. 4. Then 
the Admiral ordered the destruction of the vessels. 5. But before 
the command could be carried out, one of the sailors, a poor coasting 
pilot named Herve Riel, stepped forward and spoke. 6. He offered 
on pain of death to lead the line with the largest ship and pilot them 
safely through the narrow passage. 



254 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE 4. 

i . Complete the group of sentences. 

i. Compare these sentences with the analysis above. 

3. Discuss the statement at the head of the section. 
Is there anything the abstract does not give ? Is the 
abstract of any use ? 

4. Make such a group of sentences representing the 
days lesson in geography, or in any other of your 
studies. 

5. Write to a sick classmate, giving in this way the 
most important part of each lesson he has missed in 
Arithmetic ; or in Geography ; or in History; or in 
English. 

Definition. — A paragraph of topic sentences is 
called An Abstract. 

5. The Topic Expressed or Understood. 

Read the following selection : — 

The Bunnies. 

In spite of their dangerous adventures the bunnies enjoyed the 
long summer. Every morning at earliest dawn up they hopped 
from the forms. The spot of flattened grass where each furry body 
had been resting was called a "form." Away to the clover-field 
they went leaping, one by one. There they drank the dewdrops, 
and ate a breakfast of sweet green leaves. They took a nibble here 
and a nibble there. Then they sat up on their haunches and looked 
around to spy out a possible enemy. Their round eyes twinkled 
this way and that, and their long ears twitched nervously at every 
sound. 

The twittering of the birds did not frighten them. They seemed 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 255 

to know that there was no danger-signal in the rustling of leaves 
on the trees, or the splashing of frogs in the pond. Even the crackle 
of twigs under the footsteps of a deer did not send them running. 
They must have known that grass-eating animals would not harm 
them. 

When the sunshine fell bright on some sandy hillside the bunnies 
went there, and stretched out like kittens in the pleasant warmth. 
They squirmed and blinked and turned slowly over and over. 
They lay on their backs and waved their paws in the air. Even 
then, while twisting and stretching in enjoyment, they were on the 
alert. At the sound of a caw from a neighboring tree, or at the 
sight of a hawk hovering far above, they all leapt to their feet, and 
scampered out of sight in a twinkling. 

Then for hours they sat on their forms in the shade of the bushes 
and dozed, half asleep, but ready to bound away at the first hint 
of danger. The scream of a blue jay startled every bunny wide 
awake in an instant. The jays always saw everything in the woods. 
The bunnies waited, without stirring, till they could find out what 
the trouble was. Sometimes it was a dog hunting for rabbits; 
sometimes it was a snake coiled in the sun, or a baby fox playing 
with his own tail; sometimes it was only a red squirrel, chattering 
and scolding at the blue jay. — Julia Schwartz : "Wilderness Babies." 

EXERCISE 5. 

1. In this account of " The Bunnies" there is a 
sentence that explains everything that is told about this 
little animal. Find it. 

1. Begin with this sentence and tell the class as ex- 
actly as you can what the author has told. Use the 
same tense that the author uses. 

3 . If you know well the habits of any animal, de- 
scribe them to the class in some such way as Julia 
Schwartz does. Make a topic sentence about the 
animal to begin with. 



256 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

4. If you get your information about this animal on 
any special occasion, you might give an account of this 
occasion. How will you begin this account ? How will 
you close it ? 

5. If you can find a topic sentence ready-made in 
some of the following selections , write it down; if not, 
make one as we did for " Herve' Riel." 

1. Tennyson's Song of the Brook. 6. Marjorie Daw. 

2. Macaulay's Battle of Ivry. 7. The Mountain and the Squirrel. 

3. Virginia. 8. Ye Mariners of England. 

4. Paul Revere's Ride. 9. Rip Van Winkle. 

5. How They Brought the Good 10. Lowell's " The Fountain." 

News from Ghent to Aix. 

6. Discuss in class whether it would have been a 
good plan if Browning had begun " Herve Riel" with 
a sentence that told you what happened. 

7. Settle the question by having half the class write 
the story in one way and the other half in the other. 
Get the teacher to decide which lot of stories is best. 

Definition. — Sometimes the sentence that tells you 
what the whole sentence is about can be found, 
ready-made, in the selection. When this is so, the 
Topic Sentence is said to be expressed. 

Definition. — When the reader has to put the topic 
into his own words, the Topic Sentence is said to be 
understood. 

6. Making a Topical Outline. — In the account of 
" The Bunnies " we can find not only a ready-made 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 257 

topic sentence for the whole, but one for every 
separate paragraph in the selection. 

EXERCISE 6. 

1. As you find the topic sentences in " The Bunnies" 
dictate them to a member of the class who will put them 
on the board in this way : — 

Topic of the Whole. 

1. Topic of the first paragraph. 

2. " " " second " 

3. " " " third 

4. " " " fourth " 

2. Read a short story in class and agree upon the topic 
sentence of each paragraph before writing down as above. 
If the topic of the paragraph is not expressed, find the 
■understood topic and put it into your own words. 

3. Make a topic sentence for a composition of three 
paragraphs on one of the following subjects : — 

1. Cotton. 4. War. 

2. A Carpenter's Shop. 5. An Accident. 

3. A Wrestling Match. 

Make a topic sentence for each paragraph. Write 
them as above. 

4. Write the composition^ indenting the first line of 
each paragraph one inch. Look up the directions for 
writing and folding a cotnposition, if you have forgot- 
ten them. 

5 . Write compositions on some of the topic sentences in 
Exercise 2, Section III as the teacher may direct. 



2 5 8 



LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 



Definition. — A list of the topics of paragraphs in a 
composition is called a Topical outline. 

Caution. — Always be sure to put the topic of the whole composi- 
tion at the head of your outline, just as you put the title at the head 
of the copied composition. 

Caution. — Always see that the outline is very neatly written and 
that the topic sentences are expressed as briefly and as much alike 
as possible. 



CHAPTER II 

NARRATION 

7. Outlining a Story. — In the poem " Herve ' Riel" 
the scene of the story is on board the Admiral's 
ship Formidable. It opens when the pilots come 
on board and ends when the sailor says what he 
would like to have. In the two opening stanzas we 
are told where and when the incident happened, 
who were in distress and why. In the concluding 
stanza we learn what the author thinks of the hero 
and of the men who forgot to do him honor. An- 
other way to analyze the poem would be this : — 





Topic of the Whole. 


Introduction: When: 


The 31st of May after the battle of the 




Hogue. 


Where . 


On the sea near Saint Malo. 


Who: 


The defeated French squadron under Dam- 




freville. 


Why: 


The pursuit of the English and the danger- 




ous passage. 



Scene I. On board the Formidable. 

1. Topic Stanza 3. 

2. " " 4. 

3. Conclusion Stanza 4. 
Conclusion: Topic par. II. 

EXERCISE 7. 

I . Complete the above outline. 



2 6o LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

2. Read aloud in class one or more of the following 
poems : — 

i. Young Lochinvar. 4. The Wreck of the Hesperus. 

2. Sir Patrick Spens. 5. The Lady of Shalott. 

3. John Gilpin's Ride. 

3. Decide in class who are the characters, how many 
scenes, where each scene opens and ends. 

4. Make an outline by scenes. 

5. Ask the teacher to appoint a member of the class to 
read Hawthorne's story of "The Ambitious Guest" or 
" The Snow Image " or Poe's story of " Dr. Tarr and 
Professor Feather," and to tell it in class as exactly as 
possible. 

6. In which of these stories do you get an idea of the 
end before it happens ? In which does the end come as a 
surprise ? 

7. Plan and write an original story in two scenes. 
Caution. — Observe that stories may be in one or more scenes. 

Caution. — Observe that sometimes we find who the chief characters 
are and something about the story before the first scene opens; 
sometimes we do not. 

To the Teacher. — It is so important here to avoid making an 
impression of a stereotyped form of narrative structure, that the 
explanation of the needful introductory elements of a story and 
the principles of preparation have been left largely to the teacher, 
the emphasis being put on the important point, that a story should 
proceed by scenes. 

8. Making a Story Interesting : Suspense and Climax. 
— The test of a good story is its power to get and 
hold the interest of the hearer or reader. This 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 261 

means more than containing some interesting inci- 
dents. A good story must be continuously interest- 
ing and must become more and more interesting as 
it goes along. One way to hold a person's attention 
is. to excite his curiosity and yet not gratify it, or 
gratify it bit by it. It is possible, however, to hold 
a person's attention even when he knows what is 
going to happen ; if a funny story gets funnier and 
funnier, it will be listened to even if the end is per- 
fectly clear or if the story has often been told be- 
fore. The only positive requirement is, that what- 
ever the interest of the story, it must grow stronger 
and stronger until the end, or until another interest 
takes its place. 

EXERCISE 8. 

1. Bring to class a list of stories yon think interesting 
and show the way in which your interest is made to grow 
steadily stronger. 

2. What is the most interesting moment in : 

1. Rip Van Winkle. 6. The King of the Golden River. 

2. The Ambitious Guest. 7. The Gold Bug. 

3. The Great Stone Face. 8. The Last of the Mohicans. 

4. The Pied Piper of Hamlin. 9. The Story of a Short Life. 

5. The Merchant of Venice. 

3. How is your interest sustained tip to this point ? 
After this highest point is reached, what change of in- 
terest ? See ivhetJier you can find in some of the books 
mentioned examples of 'what might be called " relay in- 
terests." 



262 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

4. Read your latest composition to the class and let 
them tell you whether it gets more and more interesting. 

Definition. — The method of stimulating interest 
by witholding something that the reader wishes to 
know is called Suspense. 

Definition. — The arrangement of details in the 
order of their increasing interest and importance is 
called Climax. 

9. The Tense of the Verb in Story Telling. — Tell- 
ing a story is a different thing from telling about a 
story. In telling a story you are the author of the 
story, or you make believe that you are while you 
are telling it. If the story is true, you wish it to 
be believed ; if it is imaginary, you wish to make it 
seem as real as possible. One way to make an 
imaginary story seem true is to use the past tense in 
telling it. Notice that fairy stories are always told 
in the past tense. In telling about a story, you are 
simply reminding your hearer of what is in the book 
you are speaking of, or you are reporting it to him ; 
in this case it is well to use the present tense. 

EXERCISE 9. 

1. What tense is chiefly used in " Herve' Riel" ? 
Point out and explain the use of any other tenses. Re- 
viezv Exercise 155 in the grammar. 

2. Tell the class briefly about some of the incidents in : 

1. Rip Van Winkle. 3. Oliver Twist. 

2. Treasure Island, 4. Any other story you know well. 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 263 

Use the present tense. 

3. Plan in class a composition of four paragraphs in 
which you show why you like a certain story. Let the 
first paragraph be a summary of the incidents of the 
story. Write on the board the topic of each of the other 
three paragi aphs. 

4. Write the first paragrapli using the present tense. 

5 . Write in class, from memory, for a child to read. 

1. The Story of Cinderella. 4. Ulysses. 

2. The Gorgon's Head. 5. The Sirens. 

3. Baldur. 6. A fairy story of your own imagining. 

Use the present tense. 

Caution. — Always be sure to use the past tense in telling an origi- 
nal story. 

Caution. — Take care never to change the tense of your verbs 
without a good reason for doing so. 

10. The Story Told by the Characters. — Do you 
think you get a better idea of what a person says 
when you hear his very words or when what he said 
is reported to you indirectly ? For instance, if you 
were telling a friend what your father said to you 
when he found that the house was on fire, would it 
be more interesting to say : " And my father told 
me to run and give the alarm " ? or, " Father called 
out to me, c Run ! Give the alarm ! ' " ? 

EXERCISE 10. 

I. I11 the sentences on pp. 70-71 change every direct 
quotation you find into indirect. What effect, if any, 
upon the interest ? 



THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 265 

2. Tell in class one or more of the following stories 
without any direct quotation of what the characters 
said: — 

1. An incident of the French Camp. 

2. The White Ship. 

3. The Soldiers. 

4. Annie Laurie. 

5. The Walrus and the Carpenter. 

6. Father William. 

7. How They Brought the Good News. 

8. A Generous Deed (from Coure). 

9. Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Nottingham. 
10. Lowell's Courtin'. 

Have you improved them ? 

3. Make a list of the words used in one or more of 
these poems to introduce direct speech. Add to it. 

4. Re-read your own story, written according to in- 
structions in Exercise 5, Section IX, to find out whether 
any part of it could be put into conversation. If so, re- 
write, making the change. 

5 . Read both versions to the class and let them decide 
which is the more interesting. 

Caution. — Observe that another way to make a story interesting 
is to let the characters speak for themselves. 

Caution. — Vary the words and the order of the words introducing 
conversation. Don't say always "he said" or "said he." 



CHAPTER III 



DESCRIPTION 



11. A Picture Study. — A picture has a topic like a 
story or any other kind of book. That is to say, 
there is one idea which it is drawn or painted to ex- 
press. In a good picture all the details help to 
make this idea clear, just as in a long composition 
each of the paragraphs helps us to understand what 
the whole thing is about, or in a paragraph each sen- 
tence helps us to understand what the paragraph is 
about. 

EXERCISE 11. 

i . Decide what idea you think is expressed by this 
picture and show the class how all the details guide you 
in finding that idea. If there are any details that do 
not help you, mention them. 

i. If some of the class disagree as to the meaning of 
the picture ', let them explain what they see in it. Get 
the class to decide which one has made the clearest and 
the completest explanation. 

3. Get the teacher or some member of the class who 
has recently seen a great picture to describe it. Or 
ask the teacher to appoint a member of the class to study 
some great picture to tell the class about. 



DESCRIPTION 267 

4. Find out by inquiry among your friends the me- 
chanical process of painting a picture. Plan and write 
an outline for a composition on this process. 

5. If the outline is approved, write the composition. 
If you prefer, put it in the form of a dialogue between 
you and an artist. Let this dialogue take place in the 
artist's studio or in a picture gallery. 

To the Teacher. — Good work may be done here with the help 
of reproductions of famous pictures. 

12. Of Word Pictures. 

Read the following selections : — 

The mournful wind was up and out, shouting and chasing, the 
lord of the morning. Poplars swayed and tossed with a roaring 
swish; dead leaves sprang aloft, and whirled into space; and all 
the clear-swept heaven seemed to thrill with sound like a great 
harp. It was one of the first awakenings of the year. The earth 
stretched herself, smiling in her sleep; and everything leaped and 
pulsed to the air of the giant's movement. — Kenneth Grahame : "The 
Golden Age." 

A panorama more deplorably desolate no human imagination can 
conceive. To the right and left, as far as the eye could reach, there 
lay outstretched, like ramparts of the world, lines of horribly black 
and beetling cliff, whose character of gloom was but the more forcibly 
illustrated by the surf which reared high up against it its white and 
ghastly crest, howling and shrieking forever. Just opposite the 
promontory upon whose apex we were placed, and at a distance of 
some five or six miles out at sea, there was visible a small, bleak- 
looking island; or more properly its position was discernible through 
the wilderness of surge in which it was enveloped. About two miles 
nearer the land, arose another of smaller size, hideously craggy and 



268 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

barren, and encompassed at various intervals by a cluster of dark 
rocks. — Edgar Allan Poe : "A Descent into the Maelstrom." 

The Flag Goes By. 

Hats off! 
Along the street there comes 
A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, 
A flash of color beneath the sky; 

Hats off! 
The flag is passing by! 

Blue and crimson and white it shines, 
Over the steel-tipped, ordered lines. 

Hats off! 
The colors before us fly; 
But more than the flag is passing by. 

Sea-fights and land-fights, grim and great, 
Fought to make and save the State: 
Weary marches and sinking ships; 
Cheers of victory on dying lips; 

Days of plenty and years of peace; 
March of strong land's swift increase; 
Equal justice, right and law, 
Stately honor and reverend awe; 

Sign of a nation great and strong 

To ward her people from foreign wrong: 

Pride and glory and honor, — all 

Live in the colors to stand or fall. 

Hats off! 
Along the street there comes 
A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums; 
And loyal hearts are beating high: 

Hats off! 
The flag is passing by! — Henry Holcomb Bennett. 



DESCRIPTION 269 

"A slight figure," said Mr. Peggotty, looking at the pie, "kinder 
worn; soft, sorrowful, blue eyes. A delicate face; a pritty head, 
leaning a little down; a quiet voice and way — timid a'most. That's 
Em'ly!" — Charles Dickens: "David Copperfield." 

Pictures may be made with words as well as with 
pencil or brush, but with this difference. The 
painter's picture is before our eyes ; the word pic- 
ture must be seen by the eye of the mind — the 
imagination. The first thing that we have to do in 
making such a picture with words is to be sure that 
we ourselves have a clear picture before our eye, 
which we want another person to see ; the next thing 
is to contrive it so that the other person may see at 
a glance the whole picture we want him to see, no 
matter how large it may be. 

EXERCISE 12. 

1. Read alotid in class each of the passages above. 
Let the members of the class say offhatid, each in one 
sentence, what they see. 

2. Study the selectiofis and find the expressio?is that 
give the impression. 

3. Find some passages in your favorite books that seem 
to you as vivid as those above. 

4. Make a comparison that would make the height of 
a very tall man clear to your hearer s or reader's eye ; 
one that would enable him to see the shape of a meadow 
or city park ; one that would exp) ess well the color of 
the sky in March ; one that would give a stranger some 
idea of a village ; of the size of a great building ; of 



270 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

the hurry of the people in the streets ; of the speed of a 
runner. 

5. Tell something you have seen a person of your ac- 
quaintance do that showed so plainly the sort of person 
he is that you think it might be taken as a description of 
his character. Mention incidents of this kind in some 
of the books you have read. 

6. Write a letter to a stranger describing a person 
whom he is to meet and whom he has never seen. Con- 
sider the difference between this letter arid the letters you 
wrote according to suggestions in Sections II and I V. 

Caution. — In describing be sure to make it easy for people to see 
the whole object at a glance. 

To the Teacher — As in the case of narrative structure, the dan- 
ger of forcing upon the pupil's mind a stereotyped form has been 
considered more serious than that of some laxness in the instructions 
for description. Let the pupil try different methods of presenting 
the object as a whole, and arrange his sentences not always in the 
same order. 

13. Unity in the Composition. — Can you imagine a 
comparison between a story, a description, or any 
sort of composition and a wheel ? You remember 
that every composition has a central idea which we 
express in the topic sentence. Then every para- 
graph contains some thought that is clearly connected 
with the central thought. Finally, most composi- 
tions have at the end something that brings back to 
your mind the topic sentence or what the whole 
piece is about. In such a comparison what part of 
the composition would remind you of the hub of 
the wheel ? Of the rim ? 



DESCRIPTION 271 

EXERCISE 13. 

1 . Read the following selections : — 

1. Lowell's poem To the Dandelion. 

2. Hawthorne's Ambitious Guest. 

3. The Battle of Chevy Chase. 

4. A Dog of Flanders. 

5. King Robert of Sicily. 

6. The Bell of Atri and others of the Tales of a Wayside Inn. 

7. Rab and his Friends. 

8. The Bunnies. 

9. The Snow Image. 

10. Kaa's Hunting and other stories of the Jungle Books. 

What is the most important thought in any one of 
these selections f Do you find it repeated at the end f 

2. What indications do you find of the sort of place in 
which the story occurs ? Gather up all details of this sort 
into a paragraph. 

3. Arrange a debate in class on the question: Is the 
ability to paint a fine picture more desirable than the 
ability to write well? Let each speaker conclude his ar- 
gument with a summary of his reasons for maintaining 
his side of the question. 

4. Try making an outline in the form of a tvheel for 
one side of this debate, or for one of the shorter selections 
mentioned above. Where will you write the topic sen- 
tence f The topics of the paragraph ? The summariz- 
ing sentence f 

5. Plan and write a description of your schoolhouse or 
your own home or a summer cottage as seen from three 
points. Decide before you begin from what point you arc- 
looking at it and how you can give a general idea of its 



272 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

appearance to a person who has never seen it. When you 
have finished, re-read to make sure that these things are 
in your first paragraph, and that yon have made it clear 
when you changed your position. Close your description 
with a sentence that gives again in different words the 
picture you wish your reader to carry away. 

^Definition. — Details that give time and place are 
said to form the Setting of a story or description. 

Definition. — When all the parts of a composition 
are clearly related to the central topic, the composi- 
tion has Unity. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE PARAGRAPH 

Read the following selection: — 

14. Unity in the Paragraph. — The boy can best become a good 
man by being a good boy — not a goody-goody boy, but just a plain 
good boy. I do not mean that he must love only the negative 
virtues; I mean he must love the positive virtues also. "Good" 
in the largest sense should include whatever is fine, straightforward, 
clean, brave, and manly. The best boys I know — the best men I 
know — are good at their studies or their business, fearless and 
stalwart, hated and feared by all that is wicked and depraved, in- 
capable of submitting to wrong-doing, and equally incapable of 
being aught but tender to the weak and helpless. A healthy- 
minded boy should feel hearty contempt for the coward, and even 
more hearty indignation for the boy who bullies girls or small boys, 
or tortures animals. One prime reason for abhorring cowards is 
because every good boy should have it in him to thrash the objection- 
able boy as the need arises. — Theodore Roosevelt : " The Good 
Citizen." 

We have found over and over again that every 
paragraph in a composition has a topic of its own, 
just as the whole composition has one. This is true 
of any paragraph, whether it is part of a larger 
composition or whether it is itself the whole com- 
position. A paragraph is not just a collection of 
sentences. 

EXERCISE 14. 

I . Compare the two groups of sentences under Exer- 



274 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

cise 141 in the Grammar with the group of sentences by 
Mr. Roosevelt. What difference between them ? 

2. Caii you find any sentence in the group above that 
would best be left out ? If you can, tell the class why 
you think so. 

3. Write a paragraph on any one of these topic sen- 
tences : — 

1. War is sometimes right. 

2. I once had a very odd experience. 

3. History is my hardest study. 

4. The prettiest sight in the world is a group of little children 
at play. 

5. I shall never forget when I learned how to . 

6. It is no small matter to make a collection of . 

4. In which of the topics suggested under Exercise 3 
might there be occasion for a setting. Let the class sug- 
gest suitable settings for them. 

Caution — Observe that in a good paragraph every sentence has 
a part in making clear the paragraph topic. 

Read the following selections : — 

15. The Topic of the Paragraph — Yet it is pleasant to remem- 
ber that, in our climate, there are no weeds so persistent and lasting 
and universal as grass. Grass is the natural covering of the field. 
There are but four weeds that I know of — milkweed, live-forever, 
Canada thistle, and toad -flag — that it will not run out in a good soil. 
We crop it and mow it year after year; and yet, if the season favors, 
it is sure to come again. Fields that have never known the plow 
and never been seeded by man, are yet covered with grass. And 
in human nature, too, weeds are by no means in the ascendant, 
troublesome as they are. The good green grass of love and truth- 
fulness and common sense is more universal, and crowds the idle 
weeds to the wall. — John Burroughs : "A Bunch of Herbs." 



THE PARAGRAPH 275 

If I were to relate the whole of Bellerophon's previous adven- 
tures, they might easily grow into a very long story. It will be 
quite enough to say, that in a certain country in Asia, a terrible 
monster, called a Chimaera, had made its appearance, and was doing 
more mischief than could be talked about between now and sunset. 
According to the best accounts which I have been able to obtain, 
this Chimsera was nearly, if not quite, the ugliest and most poisonous 
creature, and the strangest and unaccountablest, and the hardest, 
to fight with, and the most difficult to run away from, that ever 
came out of the earth's inside. It had a tail like a boa-constrictor, 
its body was like I do not care what; and it had three separate heads 
one of which was a lion's, the second a goat's and the third an 
abominably great snake's. And a hot blast of fire came flaming 
out of each of its three months! Being an earthly monster, I doubt 
whether it had any wings; but, wings or no, it ran like a goat and a 
lion, and wiggled along like a serpent, and thus contrived to make 
about as much speed as all the three together. — From The Chimaera 
in Hawthorne's "Wonder Book." 

EXERCISE 15. 

1 . Find the topic sentence in each of the paragraphs 
above. Hozv can you prove that you are right ? 

2. Point out any comparisons you find in them. Do 
these comparisons help to make the topic clearer ? What 
else do they do ? 

3. Point out any expressions that give the setting ; of 
what use are they ? 

4. Express in full one of the two comparisons sug- 
gested in the last sentence of the first paragraph, and 
use it as a topic sentence for a paragraph. 

5. Read your paragraph to the class and let them 
say whether every sentence in the paragraph belongs 
there. 



276 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

Caution. — Observe that the topic of a paragraph is not always at 
the beginning of a paragraph; it may be anywhere in the paragraph. 

Caution. — Observe that a paragraph frequently has an intro- 
ductory sentence at the beginning and a summarizing sentence at 
the end. 

Read the following selection : — 

16. The Topic of the Paragraph Expressed or Understood.— 

In came a fiddler with a music book, and went up to the lofty desk 
and made an orchestra of it, and tuned like fifty stomach-aches. In 
came Mrs. Fizziwig (one vast substantial smile). In came the 
three Miss Fizziwigs, beaming and lovable. In came the six young 
followers whose hearts they broke. In came all the young men and 
women employed in the business. In came the housemaid, with 
her cousin, the baker. In came the cook, with her brother's particu- 
lar friend, the milkman. In they all came, one after another; some 
shyly, some boldly, some gracefully, some awkwardly, some push- 
ing, some pulling; in they all came, anyhow and every how. Away 
they all went, twenty couples at once; hands half round and back 
again the other way; down the middle and up again; round and 
round in various stages of affectionate grouping; old top couples 
always turning up in the wrong place; new top couples starting off 
again as soon as they got there; all top couples at last, and not a 
bottom one to help them! When this result was brought about, 
old Fizziwig, clapping his hands to stop the dance, cried out, "Well 
done!" — Charles Dickens: "A Christmas Carol." 

EXERCISE 16. 

1. Find or make a topic sentence for this paragraph. 

1. Without expressing your opinion about a person 
you know, tell some things he does and says that will 
probably show the class what you think of him. 

3 . Arrange with one of your mates to hold a con- 
versation in the class about someone whom you both 
know and whom you have different opinions about. 



THE PARAGRAPH 277 

Let each one give examples as above ', of what the per- 
son does or says, without expressing his opinion. Let 
the class decide what your difference of opinion is. 

4. // would be interesting to have each member of 
the class choose a character from some book the class 
has read and write a paragraph about him without 
?iaming him. Then let everyone guess the person s 
identity. 

Definition. — When the Topic of a paragraph is 
found in one of the sentences of the paragraph, it is 
said to be Expressed. 

Definition. — If no one of the sentences expresses 
it wholly, the Topic is said to be Understood. 

Read the following selection : — 

17. Connecting Sentences and Paragraphs. — Bodily labour is 
of two kinds, either that which a man submits to for his livelihood, 
or that which he undergoes for his pleasure. The latter of them 
generally changes the name of labour for that of exercise, but differs 
only from ordinary labour as it rises from another motive. A 
country life abounds in both these kinds of labour, and for that 
reason gives a man a greater stock 1 of health, and consequently a 
more perfect enjoyment of himself, than any other way of life. I 
consider the body as a system of tubes and glands, or, to use a more 
rustic phrase, a bundle of pipes and strainers, fitted to one another 
after so wonderful a manner as to make a proper engine for the soul 
to work with. — Addison: "Sir Roger dc Coverley." 

Since the sentences of a paragraph are all con- 
nected with one another, it is a good plan to show 
the connection by words that can express it. For 
example, if you are going to give an illustration you 



2 8o LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

might use the words " As an example " or " For 
instance." If you are showing a difference between 
two things, the proper connection would be some 
such word as " but." 

EXERCISE 17. 

i . In the paragraph above point out words showing 
relation between sentences. 

i. Find any such connective words in the separate 
paragraphs or in the longer selections given in sections 
above. 

3. Make a list of words expressing relation in time, 
relation in space, result, addition, contrast. 

See Chapter IX of Part II in the Grammar. 

4. Write a paragraph with an introductory sentence 
and a summarizing sentence. Choose your topic. t 

5 . Write two paragraphs comparing two pictures 
or two persons that you know ; two classes of people ; 
two styles of architecture ; two sorts of sound. Use a 
connective expression at the beginning of the second 
paragraph showing- relation betzvcen the paragraphs. 
Let the first paragrapJi begin with an introductory sen- 
tence, and the last paragraph with a summary of the 
thought of both. 

Caution. — Use connectives to join sentences of a paragraph. 

Caution. — Use connectives to join paragraphs. 



CHAPTER V 



THE SENTENCE 



18. Unity in the Sentence. — If we wish to speak 
and write so as to be understood and appreciated, 
we must see to it that our thoughts are expressed in 
perfectly clear sentences. Have you ever said or 
thought, when hearing some one tell a story, " How 
I wish he would stick to his subject ! " Sticking to 
the subject is something that everyone who wishes 
to be listened to with interest must learn to do. 
We have seen how necessary it is in writing a com- 
position, and we can easily see how necessary it is 
in even a single sentence. Grammar teaches us 
that not every group of words is a sentence, but that 
a group of two words is a sentence if only they give 
us the two essentials of a complete thought. (See 
Grammar pp. 15-17.) This really means that in 
every good sentence, short or long, every word 
must help in some way to make clear one single 
thought. Let us see how this is. 

EXERCISE 18. 

1. Re-read the compound sentences in Exercise 63. 
Point out the connection of thought between the two 
clauses. 



282 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

2. Try combining the sentences given in Exercise 52. 
For ins tana, Nos. 1 and 2, Nos. 3 and 4, and so on. 
Point out the difference between the combinations so 
made and the compound sentences in Exercise 63. 

3. Re-read the definition of a compound sentence, 
p. 75. Can you add something to it ? [Read the 
paragraph preceding the definition.) 

4. Write a ten minute paragraph in class on one of 
the following subjects: — 

1. "A Christmas Custom." 4. "The Comer Grocery." 

2. "One of my Heroes." 5. "Why I like to Sew." 

3. "Fishing." 

What is your topic sentence? 

5. Ask the teacher to read aloud one or two that 
seem to her interesting and to have them put on the 
board. Examine the sentences one by one and criticise 
them as Exercises 1 and 1 would suggest. 

Definition. — A sentence is a complete thought and 
one only. 

Definition. — A sentence is a miniature composition. 

Definition. — The quality of having one main 
thought which all other thoughts help to make clear 
is called Unity (" oneness"). 

19. Connecting the Parts of the Sentences. — Some- 
times there is a connection between two thoughts 
which does not appear simply because we have not 
used the words whose business it is to show the 
connection. For instance, if we should say, " It is 



THE SENTENCE 283 

raining, I must go out," we should have a combina- 
tion like those we made of sentences in Exercise 52. 
But if we say, "Though it is raining, I must go 
out," the single thought of the sentence becomes 
perfectly clear. 

EXERCISE 19. 

1. Read Chapter IX Part II of the Grammar. 

1. Find some sentences in Exercises 52 and 50 of 
the grammar that can be combined to show one thought 
by using the proper connectives ; e. g., Sentence 5 Ex- 
ercise 52. 

3. Combine the following short sentences in any way 
that will make clear thought : — 

In strong contrast to this little fellow was another. He knew too 
well what fear meant. A tribe had not yet grown accustomed to 
man's ways. I learned too late. He belongs to the tribe. One 
must be careful in handling little creatures. They live continually 
in a land. Fear reigns in the land. 

4. Read the sentences of another of your paragraphs 
written in class. Are the thoughts properly connected? 
Let the class suggest improvements. 

5. Plan a series of four letters to pass between you 
and a friend. Let each letter after the first contain 
references to what has been said in the preceding letters. 
Where will you look for information concerning the 
proper form of a friendly letter ? 

Caution. — To show the connection between parts of sentences 
use connective words and expressions. 

20. Subordination in the Sentence. — Sometimes the 



284 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

reason why one thought is not clear is not that we 
have forgotten our connectives, but that we have 
used the wrong ones. For instance, the sentence 
" Tookhees was timid and I spread a feast for him 
and he came regularly " makes nonsense, though no 
worse nonsense than people often make who go on 
stringing their sentences together without stopping 
to show the connection between them or their rela- 
tive importance. Let us see how many different 
thoughts we can make with these few sentences by 
the use of different connectives and by putting the 
less important ideas into smaller space. We might 
say : Though Tookhees was timid, I spread a feast for 
him and after that he came regularly. Though 
Tookhees was so timid, he came regularly if I 
spread a feast for him. I spread a feast for Took- 
hees, so that he came regularly. Tookhees was too 
timid to come regularly, even though I spread a 
feast for him. 



EXERCISE 20. 

i. Which thought is made most important in each 
of the sentences above ? 

i. See how many changes you can make in the sen- 
tences in Exercise 63 of the Grammar by changing the 
connectives. 

3. Which is the most important thought in each 
sentence of the paragraph about The Chimcera ? 



THE SENTENCE 285 

Change is, making some other thought in the sentence 
the main thought. 

4. Tell a story in class of some personal experience 
during the past week. Let the class stop every speaker 
who says " and — and — and." 

Caution. — Be careful to use the connective that expresses your 
meaning. 

Caution. — Put the thought that is the most important in the main 
clause. 

21. Likeness of Form in the Sentence. — Some 
thoughts that are really connected clearly seem not 
to be so because they are so differently expressed. 
For instance, we could not put into one sentence 
the two sentences (Exercise 52) " Study to be 
quiet" and "A man should learn to govern him- 
self," but if we made the construction of the two 
alike, we should see a close connection. " A man 
should learn to govern himself and should study to 
be quiet " is a good sentence ; so is this, " Study 
to be quiet and learn to govern yourself." 

EXERCISE 21. 

1. Combine the following sentences into one by mak- 
ing their construction similar : — 

(1) Writing compositions is hard. To read an interesting book 
is easy. (2) If you find a pin with the head toward you, pick it 
up. On finding one with the point toward you it is better to pass 
it by. (3) When studying try to forget play. At play one should 
not remember one's books. 



286 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

2. Write a series of four business letters to pass be- 
tween you and a business firm. Let each letter after 
the first contain reference to the contents of the preced- 
ing letters. What difference inform between a friendly 
and a business letter ? 

3. Write an abstract for your diary as a memoran- 
dum of this correspondence. 

4. Make a story of some experience that you have 
had or heard of which had an exciting or surprising 
termination. Try to make the interest grow steadily 
stronger. 

5. Read your story to the class, asking for criticism of 
climax and setting. 

Caution. — Observe that similarity in form helps to make clear 
connection in thought. 

Caution. — Be sure to give time to important details; omit or 
condense unimportant details. 

Caution. — In a business letter be sure to say everything that is 
absolutely necessary for clearness; and nothing that is not. 

22. Variety in the Sentence. — One sort of sentence 
can have the quality of unity as well as another. 
We have seen that a compound or a complex sen- 
tence can have it as well as a simple sentence ; and 
if we examine again the sentences under Exercise 63, 
we see that long sentences can have it as well as 
short. This is a fortunate thing, because one kind 
of sentence would become very tiresome. People 
who speak and write well use all kinds of sentences. 



THE SENTENCE 287 

EXERCISE 22. 

Read the selections given above and point out : — 

(1) All the short sentences. 

(2) All the very long sentences. 

(3) All the simple sentences. 

(4) All the compound sentences. 

(5) All the complex sentences. 

(6) All the interrogative sentences. 

(7) All the exclamatory sentences. 

(8) All the imperative sentences. 

i. In which selection do you find most exclamatory 
sentences ? What do you think of the effect of this 
sort of sentence ? 

i. Notice the short sentences. Get rid of them if 
you can by joining them to neighboring sentences. Do 
you like the change ? What do you think is the use of 
these short sentences ? 

3. Divide the sentences in the paragraph on the 
Chimera into as many short sentences as you can. 
Read aloud. What effect do so many short sentences 
give ? 

4. Find a paragraph above in which the sentences 
seem to be very much alike. Do you like the effect ? 
Would you like many paragraphs of that sort following 
each other? 

Caution. — Observe that different kinds of sentences make differ- 
ent effects. 
Caution. — Train yourself to use all kinds of sentences. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE WORD 

23. Selecting Details to Secure Interest. — Everyone 
knows how differently the same thing sounds when 
different people tell it, or even when the same per- 
son tells it at another time or place or to different 
people. Imagine, for instance, that you had the 
experience of a visit from a tramp who asked you 
for money. If you were reporting the case to some 
society or person interested in relieving homeless 
people, you would be almost sure to tell about the 
man's thin and ragged clothing, his cough, or what-^ 
ever showed you that he needed help. If, on the 
other hand, you were telling the incident to a child, 
you would be more likely to mention the odd and 
comical things about the man — his dirty hands and 
face, the way he gobbled the food you gave him, 
or you might tell how scared you were and the 
funny things you did to hide it. You would natu- 
rally tell the details that would interest the person 
listening to you. Both your stories would be true, 
but they would be quite different. 

EXERCISE 23. 

i. To what hearers do you think the author is speak- 
ing in these books ? 





THE WORD 289 


I. 


Tom Sawyer. 


8. 


Micah Clarke. 


2. 


Little Women. 


9- 


Bannockburn. 


3- 


Two years Before the Mast. 


10. 


Alice Through the Looking 


4- 


Ye Mariners of England. 




Glass. 


5, 


The Night Before Christmas. 


n. 


The Bunker Hill Oration. 


6. 


Snow Bound. 


12. 


The Concord Hymn. 


7- 


Lest We Forget. 







1. Give the class an account of a school day as you 
would give it to your parents or to some one who had 
never seen a public school. Then tell about the same 
day in a way that would be interesting to a sick class- 
mate. Let the class criticise the appropriateness of the 
details you give. 

3. Arrange with one of your classmates to tell in 
turn before the class some incident you both saw or took 
part in. Let one tell the story as he thinks it would 
Is interesting to the city or country authorities ; let the 
other tell it as if he were speaking to the children of 
the second grade. Be careful that neither puts in any- 
thing that did not happen. Let the class criticise. 

4. On your way to school in the morning make a 
business of observing what you see that you think the 
class and the teacher would be interested in. Do this 
for three consecutive mornings^ making notes to help 
you remember. Then report to the class what you 
have gathered. Here are a few good topics. 

Street Cries; Icicles; Drifts; Street Cleaning; First Signs of 
Spring; Draft Horses; How Animals Protect Themselves; The 
Worth of Water; The Bark of Trees; The Flight of Birds; How 
Plants Come Through the Ground. 



290 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

Tell only what you actually saw on these three morn- 
ings. 

Caution. — Learn to observe closely and to record your observa- 
tions. 

Caution. — Select details that will be interesting to the people you 
are addressing. 

24. Suiting Method to Purpose. — Of course nobody 
could tell all the truth about anything, no matter 
how long he wrote or talked, or how much inter- 
ested people were in what he said. It is necessary 
to choose what is most important and to let the rest 
go. And what is most important will depend on 
what your particular reason is for wanting to be 
listened to. If you want to make a person laugh, 
you must select for his hearing whatever is amusing 
in what you have to tell. If you want him to do 
something for you, you will mention whatever you 
think will have that effect. 

EXERCISE 24. 

i. What impression does the author try to give us of 

i. Ichabod Crane? 7. Alice's Wonderland? 

2. Sleepy Hollow? 8. The Jungle? 

3. Tiny Tim? 9. Marmion? 

4. Scrooge? 10. Brutus? 

5. The Chimaera? n. The Water Babies? 

6. Mrs. Fizziwig? 12. The Scots at Flodden Field? 

1. What does the author try to make us feel in 

1. The Gettysburg Address? 3. Sir Galahad? 

2. The Star Spangled Banner? 4. The Great Stone Face? 

3. Describe the Bunnies as the red squirrel would do 



THE WORD 291 

it ; Ichabod Crane as one of his good little boys would 
do it ; as one of the young ladies in his singing class 
would do it ; a country barnyard as a child would who 
had never been in the country before ; a busy corner as 
a child would who had never been in the city before ; 
Rip Van Winkle as Wolf would do it. 

4. Tell a story about running for a train and miss- 
ing it, as you think Mark Twain would tell it ; as you 
think the girl who had never been late to school before 
would do it. 

5. Write a conversation between you and your father 
or mother in which each gives his own reason why you 
should have a trip. Write an introductory paragraph 
to this dialogue giving the time and place and circum- 
stances of its occurrence. 

Caution. — Observe that another reason why there are many 
ways of telling the same thing is that people have different purposes 
in telling it. 

Caution. — Before you begin a written or an oral composition, 
be sure that you know your Purpose in writing or speaking. 

25. Building up a Vocabulary. — The very same 
thought may be made to seem a very different thought 
by being expressed in different words. For in- 
stance, take the maxim that everyone knows — " Dis- 
cretion is the better part of valor." How different 
that same thought sounds when we put it this way. 

" He who fights and runs away 
Will live to fight another day ! " 



292 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

Again, " Pride goeth before a fall " means very 
much the same thing as the familiar remark, " Don't 
put on airs," but has quite a different effect. 

EXERCISE 25. 

i. Bring to class a list of maxims you have heard. 
Express the thought of each one in different language. 

i. In which of the selections given in section 12, 
page 266-267 do you find the greatest number of long 
words ? In which the greatest number of short 
words? Do you think the authors of these two 
selections would use the same words in telling the 
same story '? Try rewriting one of the selections in 
the way you think the author of the other would tell it. 

3 . Make as long a list as you can of pairs of words 
you know, one long and one short, meaning the same 
thing; e.g.: 

1. Migration, moving. 2. Revolution, change. 3. Residence, 
home. 

Discuss in class the circumstances under which you 
would use each word. 

4. Let the teacher assign to each member of the class 
an interesting topic from the work in history, geography, 
or other studies. Let each member of the class try to 
make an explanation of his topic that the children of the 
fourth grade could understand and like. Write a 
topical outline of what you have to say and hand it in 
to the teacher. Get permission if possible to go to the 



THE WORD 293 

fourth grade room and make the explanation to them. 
If they are interested your work is 



Caution. — Remember that the more words you know, the better 
able you will be to make what you say clear and interesting to your 
hearer. 

Caution. — Try every day to add some new word to your vocabu- 
lary. 

Read the following selection : — 

26. Accuracy in Expression. — The bear was coming on; he had, 
in fact, come on. I judged that he could see the whites of my eyes. 
All my subsequent reflections were confused. I raised the gun, 
covered the bear's breast with the sight, and let drive. Then T 
turned and ran like a deer — I did not hear the bear pursuing. I 
looked back. The bear had stopped. He was lying down. I then 
remembered that the best thing to do after having fired your gun 
is to reload it. I slipped in a charge, keeping my eyes on the bear. 
He never stirred. I walked back suspiciously. There was a quiver 
in the hind legs, but no other motion. Still he might be shamming; 
bears often sham. To make sure I approached and put a ball into 
his head. He didn't mind it now, he minded nothing. Death had 
come to him with a merciful suddenness. He was calm in death. 
In order that he might remain so, I blew his brains out, and then 
started for home. I had killed a bear! 

Notwithstanding my excitement, I managed to saunter into the 
house with an unconcerned air. There was a chorus of voices:— 

"Where are your blackberries?" 

"Why were you gone so long?" 

"Where's your pail?" 

"I left the pail." 

"Left the pail! What for?" 

"A bear wanted it." 

"Oh, nonsense!" 

"Well, the last I saw of it a bear had it." 

"Oh, come.! You didn't really see a bear?" 



294 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

"Yes, but I did really see a real bear." 

"Did he run?" 

"Yes; he ran after me." 

"I don't believe a word of it. What did you do?" 

"Oh, nothing particular — except kill the bear." 

Cries of "Gammon!" "Don't believe it!" "Where's the 
bear?" 

"If you want to see the bear, you must go up into the woods. 
I couldn't bring him home, I own, alone." — Warner: "How I 
Killed a Bear." 



There are many long words and many short words 
in the English language, and both kinds are for our 
use. Sometimes the long word is better and some- 
times the short word. The important thing is to 
find the word that will give the most vivid picture 
of its meaning. For instance, the expression " The 
stranger walked off" is clear, but it gives very little 
idea of how he looked as he did it. Now try sub- 
stituting for " walked " one of these words : ambled, 
bustled, crept, darted, shuffled, slouched, and note 
the effect. In order to make a vivid mental picture 
a word must be accurate ; we can think "walk" but 
we can see only one kind of walking at a time. 

i. Point out the words in the selection above and 
others in this book that give the most accurate pictures. 

i. Make and read in class a list of words that give 
an accurate expression of a kind of 

i. Taste. 3. Sound. 

2. Smell. 4. Walk. 



THE WORD 295 

3. Picture in words as accurately as you can : — 

1. A very tall person. 6. A perfectly honest person. 

2. A very large building. 7. An agreeable voice. 

3. A long walk. 8. A disagreeable manner. 

4. A gorgeous color. 9. Very hot water. 

5. Oval. 10. Hot springs. 

4. Write a paragraph using for the title any one of 
the following subjects : — 

1. City Noises. 5. Horseback Riding. 

2. A Morning Bath. 6. A Trip in an Automobile. 

3. My Canary. 7. Spring in the Country. 

4. A Sick Room. 

Let the class criticise the power of your words to 
bring up before them pictures aud sensations. 

5. Write a formal invitation in the third person to 
an acquaintance inviting him to dine with your parents. 
What information must you give with perfect accuracy ? 

6. Discuss in class with the teacher the reasons for 
the difference in form of a business letter y an informal 
friendly letter, and a formal note of invitation. 

Caution. — Try to observe and describe Accurately. 

Caution. — Use for accuracy comparisons, exact figures, and words 
whose Sound suggests the meaning. 

27. What is Good English ? Present Use. — In the 
preceding lessons we have seen that what we wish 
to do when we speak or write, is to make what we 
have to say so clear and so interesting to the people 
to whom we are addressing ourselves that they will 



296 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

be glad to listen to us. In order to accomplish this 
we must begin by knowing the language we are to 
use ; that is to say, we must know how educated 
people speak and write. That is one of the chief 
reasons for going to school. 

If a person were to say to you, " If you do not 
do as I say, you will abye it," you would probably 
have no idea what he meant. It would do you no 
good at all to have him tell you that if you had lived 
three hundred years ago you would have understood 
him perfectly. There are a great many words in the 
dictionaries and in literature, particularly in poetry, 
that have n'ow gone out of fashion ; and iPyou wish 
to speak so as to be understood and not to be smiled 
at, you must know what they are. 

EXERCISE 27. 

1 . Find, in poems that you know, words which are 
not now used in everyday speech. Look through 

1. Sir Patrick Spens. 4. Julius Cassar. 

2. The Lady of Shalott. 5. The Merchant of Venice. 

3. Chevy Chase. 

1. Some words are still sometimes used in everyday 
speech, but are going out of fashion. Can you find ex- 
pressions of that sort in books written by Hawthorne, 
Irving, Cooper, Scott? 

Caution. — Observe that to be "good English" a word must be 
in common use now. 

Definition. — Words no longer used are called 



THE WORD 297 

Obsolete. If they are used but are gradually going 
out of use, they are called Obsolescent. 

28. Idioms and Slang. — Words, however, may be 
in present use and not be good English. We hear 
much bad grammar and slang every day. No ex- 
pression is fit to be called good English that people 
of education and refinement do not use. Slang is 
of course not good English. The fact that some 
people who know what good English is sometimes 
use slang, does not make slang good English. To 
accomplish that it is necessary that all the people 
who write and speak best should begin to use it reg- 
ularly. Sometimes this happens ; for instance, 
twenty-five years ago cc outsider " was a slang phrase, 
now it is good English. Some people think that to 
use good English one must speak in a stiff and 
bookish way ; but this is a great mistake. Every 
language makes a distinction between the formal 
language of literature and the language of everyday 
use ; and it is perfectly possible to speak and write 
as unaffectedly and simply as we choose without 
ever using slang. 

EXERCISE 28. 

I. Compare the following expressions. Which is 
the simplest ? 

Formal English. Everyday English. Vulgar English. 

A large quantity. A great deal. A whole lot. 

A short distance. A little way. A little ways. 



298 LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 

2. Find simple everyday equivalents for the follow- 
ing :— 

i. To postpone. 3. To assume. 5. To mimic. 

2. To yield. 4. To arise. 6. To hurry. 

7. To become accustomed. 

3. Make, in a notebook, a list of vulgar English 
and errors of spelling and grammar that you see on 
sign boards and in advertisements. Make another of 
expressions used by people you know. 

4. Ask the teacher to appoint days for reading and 
discussing these lists. 

Definition. — An Idiom is an expression peculiar to 
a language. It cannot usually be explained by dic- 
tionary or grammar. 

Caution. — Observe that idioms make the style clear, simple, and 
interesting. Substitute idioms for slang. 

29. Provincialisms. — We have seen that to be 
" good English " words must not be vulgar and 
must not be out of fashion. There is one other re- 
quirement they must fulfill : they must be in national 
use. Of course everyone notices how oddly a for- 
eigner expresses himself. And even among natives 
of a country, those from one section speak so dif- 
ferently from those from another that a stranger can 
tell by their speech where they come from. Every 
large city or section of country has current expres- 
sions that are not commonly heard and sometimes 



THE WORD 299 

not even understood in other places. For instance, 
in parts of the West school boys and girls say " to- 
night " when they mean the afternoon after school 
has been dismissed. Such expressions are called 
localisms or provincialisms. We find them in all 
dialect stories, where they give a vivid and accurate 
idea of the place which is the setting of the story. 
But unless they are used with a purpose such as 
this, they are not good English. 

EXERCISE 29. 

1. Make a list of provincialisms you know. 
1. Bring to class as many dialect stories as you 
can : — 

1. Lowell's "Biglow Papers." 

2. Craddock's "In The Tennessee Mountains." 

3. Riley's "The Old Man and Jim." 

4. Page's "In Old Virginia." 

5. Joel Chandler Harris's "Uncle Remus." 

3. Show which words in these selections are vulgar- 
isms not peculiar to the region described. 

4. Plan a story of which the setting shall be a sec- 
tion of country well known to you. 

5. Introduce into the dialogue the provincialisms ap- 
propriate to the place and characters. 

Caution. — To be in good use a word must be in Present use, in 
Reputable use, in National use. 






LbN?9 



